<>': 





VF^^ry 




Class __^,44ix 
Book .__5S^_k_ 
Copyright N!' 

GOPVRrCHT DEPOSIT. 




Copyrigfht, 1902, by Doubleday, Page & Co. 

The End of the Harvest 



AGRICULTURE FOR 
BEGINNERS 



BY 



CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT 

Professor of Agriculture 



FRANK LINCOLN STEVENS 

Professor of Biology 



DANIEL HARVEY HILL 

Professor of English 
IN THE 

North Carolina College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts 



J J ' J 3 3 3 » J » 






Boston, U.SA., and London 
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

1903 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS. 

Two Copies Received 

JUL 15 1903 

Y Copyngnt tntry 

CLASS oJ XX«. No. 

^ X / / y 

COPY B, 



Ti- 



Entered at Stationers' Hall 



Copyright, 1903, by 

Charles William Burkett, Frank Lincoln Stevens 
AND Daniel Harvey Hill 



all rights reserved 



PREFACE 

The authors of this Httle book beUeve that there is no 
Hne of separation between the science of agriculture and 
the practical art of agriculture. They are assured by expe- 
rience that agriculture is eminently a teachable subject. 
They are convinced that the theory and practice of agricul- 
ture can be taught at one and the same time. They see 
no difference between teaching the child the fundamental 
principles of farming and teaching the same child the 
fundamental truths of arithmetic, geography, or grammar. 
They hold that a youth should be trained for the farm 
just as he is trained for any other occupation. 

If they are right in these views, the training must begin 
in the public schools. This is true for two reasons : 

I. It is universally admitted that aptitudes are devel- 
oped, tastes acquired, life habits formed during the years 
that a child is in the public school. Hence, during these 
important years, every child intended for the farm should 
be taught to know and love nature, should be led to form 
habits of observation, and should be required to begin a 
study of those great laws upon which agriculture is based. 
A training like this would go far towards making his life- 
work profitable and delightful. 



vi PREFACE 

2. Most boys and girls reared on a farm get no educa- 
tional training except that given in the public schools. If, 
then, the truths that unlock the doors of nature are not 
taught in the public schools, " Nature and nature's laws 
will always be hid in night " to a majority of our bread 
winners. They must still in ignorance and hopeless 
drudgery tear their bread from a reluctant soil. 

The authors return hearty thanks to Professor Thomas 
F. Hunt, Ohio State University ; Professor Augustine D. 
Selby, Ohio Experiment Station ; Professor W. F. Massey, 
North Carolina Plxperiment Station ; and Professor P'ranklin 
Sherman, Jr., State P^ntomologist of North Carolina, for aid 
in proof-reading. For valuable assistance in securing illus- 
trations grateful acknowledgment is made to the German 
Kali Works, New York ; Mr. Alexis Everett Frye, Cam- 
bridge, Mass.; Professor Byron D. Halsted, New Brunswick, 
N.J.; Director R. J. Redding, Experiment, Ga. ; Director 
I. P. Roberts, Cornell University; Vermont Farm Machine 
Company, Bellows Falls; the Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, Cornell University ; the Indiana Experiment Station, 
Lafayette; Mr. H. L. BoUey, North Dakota Agricultural Col- 
lege ; Mr. J. F. Kemp, Columbia University ; Mr. Clarence 
M. Weed, New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the 
Mechanic Arts ; and the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. Detailed credit is given in connection with many 
of the illustrations. ^^^ AUTHORS. 

June, 1903. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter I — THE SOIL 



Section 



Origin of the soil 

Tillage of the soil 

The moisture of the soil 

How the water rises in the soil 

Draining the soil . 

Improving the soil 

Manuring the soil . 



I 
6 

ID 

15 
18 

22 



Chapter II — THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 

Section 8. Roots ...... 

9. How a plant feeds from the soil . 

10. Root tubercles .... 

1 1 . The rotation of crops . 



27 
31 
33 
35 



Chapter III— THE PLANT 

Section 12. How a plant feeds from the air . 

13. The sap current .... 

14. The flower and the seed 

15. Pollination ..... 

16. Crosses, hybrids, and cross-pollination 

17. Plant propagation by buds 

18. Plant seeding: cotton; wheat 

19. Selecting seed corn 

20. Weeds ...... 

21. Seed purity and vitality 



41 
42 

44 
48 

50 

54 
62 
69 
73 

11 



Vlll 



CONTENTS 



Chapter IV — HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 



Section 22. Grafting 



23. Budding 

24. Planting and pruning 



PAGK 

86 
88 



Chapter V — THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 

Section 25. The cause and nature of plant disease 

26. Yeast and bacteria 

27. Prevention of plant diseases . 

28. Some special plant diseases . 

Fire blight of the pear and apple 

Oat and wheat smuts 

The potato scab 

Late potato blight 

The club root 

The black knot 

The peach curl 

The cotton wilt 

The fruit mold 



94 
100 
102 
103 
103 
107 
109 
1 1 1 
114 
114 

115 
115 
116 



Chapter VI — ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD 
INSECTS 

Section 29. Insects in general . . . . . .118 

30. Orchard insects : San Josd scale ; codling 

moth ; plum curculio ; grape phylloxera ; 
cankerworm ; apple-tree tent caterpillar ; 
pear-tree girdler^^^ach borer . . .126 

31. Garden and field insects: cabbage worm; 

chinch bug ; plant louse ; squash byg ; flea- 
beetle ; weevil ; Hessian fly ; potato beetle ; 
tobacco worm . . . . . .140 



CONTENTS 



IX 



Chapter VII — FARM CROPS 



Section 32. 


Cotton , 


33- 


Tobacco 


34- 


Wheat . 


35- 


Corn 


36. 


Peanuts . 


37- 


Sweet potatoes 


38. 


Rice 


39- 


Tlie farm garden 



150 

159 
163 

168 
173 

177 
179 



Chapter VIII— DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



Section 40 


Horses ..... 


. 183 


41 


Cattle 


. 192 


42 


Sheep ..... 


. 197 


43 


Swine ..... 


. 200 


44 


Farm poultry 


. 204 


45 


Bee culture .... 


. 207 


46 


Why we feed 


. 211 


Chapter IX — 


-FARM DAIRYING 





Section 47. The dairy cow: care of the cow . 

48. Milk, cream, churning, and butter : milk ; th 
different kinds of milk; cream; the churn 
churning ; butter .... 

How milk sours ..... 

Growing feeding stuffs on the farm 

Farm tools and machines 

Birds ....... 

Life in the country ..... 



49 

50 
51 

52 
53 



Appendix — References and Tables 
Glossary ...... 

Index ...... 



216 



220 
225 
228 
232 

234 
240 

247 

255 
263 



TO THE TEACHER 

An earnest teaching of this book will, we believe, add to 
the attractiveness of your course of study. Do not hesi- 
tate to enter heartily into the new subject. To teach agri- 
culture you need not feel that you must be an authority 
on all questions arising in this broad field. To teach some 
agriculture one need not know all agriculture. If you 
know even a few valuable facts, methods, or principles 
that will make life on the farm easier, that will make the 
farm more beautiful, more productive, and more profitable, 
you will be doing good by imparting these methods and 
these principles. 

Lead the pupils out into the field, make simple experi- 
ments before them, and have them also perform experiments. 
Let them learn directly from nature : a fact gained at first 
hand will linger in the mind long after mere second-hand 
book knowledge has departed. Teach by observation and 
experiment. The young mind grasps the concrete but 
wearies with the abstract. 

You will find in the practical exercises many sugges- 
tions as to experiments that you can make with your class. 
Do not neglect these. They will be the life of your work. 
In many cases it will be best to perform the experimental 
or observational work first, and turn to the text later to 
amplify the pupil's knowledge. 

xi 



xii TO THE PUPIL 

Although the authors have arranged this book in a 
logical order, they hope that teachers will feel free to teach 
each topic in the season best suited to its study. 



TO THE PUPIL 

Consult the glossary in the back of this book for the 
meanings of all hard words. 

Try to get for your school library every farm bulletin 
issued by the United States Department of Agriculture 
and as many bulletins as possible from different State 
Experiment Stations. These bulletins cost nothing and 
are mines of practical and interesting information. 

Perform all the suggested experiments for yourself. 
Do not be content to watch your teacher or your fellow- 
students perform these experiments. First-hand work 
gives expertness, accuracy, interest, knowledge, power. 

Above all, learn of nature. At first she is a shy and 
silent teacher, but on better acquaintance she will talk to 
you in many tongues. 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

CHAPTER I 
THE SOIL 

SECTION I— ORIGIN OF THE SOIL 

The word soil occurs many times in this Uttle book. 
In its agricultural sense this word is used to describe the 
thin layer of surface earth that, like some great blanket, 
is tucked around the wrinkled and age-beaten form of our 
globe. The harder and colder earth under this surface 
layer is called the subsoil. It should be remembered, 
however, that in waterless and sun-dried countries there 
seems little difference between the soil and the subsoil. 

Plants, insects, birds, beasts, men, — all alike are fed on 
what grows in this thin layer of soil. If some wild flood 
in sudden wrath could sweep into the ocean this earth- 
wrapping soil, food would soon become as scarce as it was 
in Samaria when mothers boiled and ate their sons. The 
face of the earth as we now see it daintily robed in grass, 
or uplifting waving acres of corn, or even naked, water- 
scarred, and disfigured by man's neglect, is very different 
from what it was in its earliest days. How was it then } 
How did the soil originate } 



2 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

Learned men believe that at first the surface of the 
earth was solid rock. How were these rocks changed 
into workable soil ? Occasionally a curious boy picks up 
a rotten stone, squeezes it, and finds his hands filled with 
dirt, or soil. Now, just as the boy crumbled with his 
fingers this single stone, the great forces of nature with 
boundless patience crumbled, or, as it is called, disinte- 
grated, the early rock mass. These simple but giant- 
strong agents that beat the rocks into powder with a club- 
like force a million fold more powerful than the club force 
of Hercules were chiefly: (i) heat and cold; (2) water, frost, 
and ice ; (3) a very low form of vegetable life ; and (4) tiny 
animals, if such minute bodies can be called animals. In 
some cases these forces acted singly; in others, all acted 
together to rend and crumble the unbroken stretch of rock. 
Let us glance at some of the methods used by these skilled 
world makers. 

Heat and cold are working partners. You remember that 
most hot bodies shrink, or contract, on cooling. These early 
rocks were hot. As the outside shell of rock cooled from 
exposure to air and moisture, it contracted. This shrink- 
age of the rigid rim, of course, broke many of the rocks, 
and here and there left cracks, or fissures. In these fis- 
sures water collected, froze, and, as freezing water expands 
with irresistible power, the expansion still further broke 
the rocks to pieces. The smaller pieces again, in the 
same way, were acted upon by frost and ice, and again 
crumbled. This process has continued more or less until 
this day. 

Running water was another giant soil former! If you 
would understand its action, observe some usually sparkling 



THE SOIL 



Stream just after a washing rain. The clear waters are 
ugHed and discolored by mud washed in from the surround- 
ing hills. As though disliking their muddy burden, the 
waters strive to throw it off. Here, as low banks offer 
chance, they run out into shallows and drop some of 
it. Here, as they pass some quiet pool, they deposit 
more. At last they reach the still water at the mouth, 




Fig. I. Rock marked by the IScraping of a 
Glacier over it 

and there they shake off the last of their mud load, and 
often form of it little islands, or deltas. In the same way, 
bearing acres of soil in their waters, mighty rivers like 
the Amazon, the Mississippi, and the Hudson, when they 
are swollen by rain, sweep to the seas. Some soil they 
scatter over the lowlands as they whirl seaward ; the rest 
they deposit in deltas at their mouths. It is estimated 
that the Mississippi carries to the ocean each year enough 



4 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

soil to cover a square mile of surface to a depth of two 
hundred and sixty-eight feet. 

The early brooks and rivers, instead of bearing mud, 
ran oceanward bearing ground stone that either they them- 
selves had worn from the rocks by ceaseless fretting, or 
bearing stones that other forces had dislodged from parent 
nest. The large pieces were whirled from side to side, 
beaten against one another, or against bed rock, until they 
were ground finer. The rivers distributed this rock soil just 
as the later rivers distribute muddy soil. Year after year 
for ages the moving waters ground against the rocks. Vast 
were the waters ; vast the number of years ; vast the results. 

Glaciers were another soil-producing agent. Glaciers, 
as Stockbridge says, are but " streams frozen and moving 
slowly but irresistibly onwards, down well-defined valleys, 
grinding and pulverizing the rock masses detached by the 
force and weight of their onslaught." Where and how 
were these glaciers formed ? 

Once a great part of upper North America was a vast 
sheet of ice. Whatever moisture fell from the sky fell 
as snow. No one knows what made this long winter of 
snow, but we do know that snows piled on snows until 
mountainlike masses reared their heads above the rocks. 
The lower snow was by the pressure of the upper packed 
into ice masses. By and by some change of climate caused 
these masses of ice to break up somewhat and to move to 
the south and west. These moving masses, carrying rock 
and frozen earth, ground them ^to powder. King thus 
describes the stately movement of these snow mountains : 
" Beneath the bottom of this slowly moving sheet of pressure- 
plastic ice, which with more or less difficulty kept itself 



THE SOIL 



5 



conformable with the face of the land over which it was 
riding, the sharper outstanding points were cut away and 
the deeper river canons filled in. Desolate and rugged rocky 
wastes were thrown down and spread over with rich soil." 

The joint action of air, moisture, and frost was still 
another agent of soil making. This action is called weath- 
ering. Whenever you have noticed the outside rocks of a 
spring house, you have noticed that tiny bits are crumbling 




Fig. 2. Ground Rock at End of a Glacier 



from the face of the rocks, and adding little by little to the 
soil. This is a slow way of making additions to the soil. It 
is estimated that it would take 728,000 years to wear away 
limestone rock to a depth of thirty-nine inches. But when 
you recall the countless years through which the weather 
has striven against the rocks, you can readily understand that 
its never-wearying activity has added immensely to the soil. 
In the rock soil formed in these various ways, and 
indeed on the rocks themselves, tiny plants that live on 



6 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

food taken from the air began to grow. They grew just 
as you now see mosses and Hchens grow on the surface 
of rocks. The decay of these plants added some fertiUty 
to the newly formed soil. The life and death of each suc- 
ceeding generation of these lowly plants added to the soil 
matter accumulating on the rocks. Slowly but unceas- 
ingly the depth of soil increased until higher vegetable 
forms could flourish and add their dead bodies to the 
deepening soil. This vegetable addition to the soil is 
generally known as Jiinnns. 

In due course of time low forms of animal life came to 
live on these plants, and in turn by their work and their 
death to aid in making a soil fit for the plowman. 

Thus with a deliberation that fills man with awe, the 
powerful forces of nature splintered the rocks, crumbled 
them like a potter's vessel, filled them with plant food, and 
turned their flinty grains into a soft, snug home for vege- 
table life. 

SECTION II— TILLAGE OF THE SOIL 

A good many years ago there lived in England a man 
by the name of Jethro Tull. He was a farmer and a most 
successful man in every way. 

His claim to fame comes from his teachino- the EnHish 
people and the world the value of thorough tillage of the 
soil. Before and during his time, farmers did not till 
the soil very intelligently. They simply prepared the 
seed bed in a careless manner, as a great many farmers 
do to-day, and when the crops were gathered the yields 
were not large. 



THE SOIL 



Jethro Tull centered attention on the important fact that 
careful and thorough tillage increases the available plant food 
in the soil. He did not know why his crops were better 
when they were frequently and thoroughly tilled : but he 




Fig. 3. Slope to Water shows Soil weathered from 
Face of Cliff 

knew the fact. He explained the fact by saying that " tillage 
is manure." We have since learned the reason for the truth 
that Tull taught, and, while his explanation was incorrect, the 
practice that he was following was excellent. The stirring 



8 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

of the soil enables the air to circulate through it freely, and 
permits a breaking down of the complex compounds that 
contain the elements necessary to plant growth. 

You have seen how the air helps to crumble the stone 
and brick in old buildings. It does the same with soil if 
permitted to circulate freely through it. The agent of the 
air that chiefly performs this work is called carbonic acid 




Fig. 4. A Bountiful Crop by Tillage alone 

gas, and this gas is one of the greatest helpers the farmer 
has in carrying on his work. We must not forget that in 
soil preparation the air is just as important as any of the 
tools and implements used in cultivation. 

For most soils a two-horse plow is necessary to break 
up and pulverize the land. \ 

If the soil is fertile and if deep plowing has always been 
done, good crops will result, other conditions being favor- 
able. If, however, the tillage is poor, scanty harvests will 
always result. 



THE SOIL 9 

When a soil has been neglected and when it is hard and 
dead, shallow plowing will prove more satisfactory. But a 
shallow soil can always be improved by properly deepening 
it. The principle of greatest importance in soil preparation 
is the gradual deepening of the soil in order that plant 
roots may have more comfortable homes. If the farmer 
has been accustomed to plow but four inches deep, he 
should adjust the plow so as to turn five inches at the 
next plowing, then six, and so on until the seed bed is nine 
or ten inches deep. This gradual deepening will not injure 
the soil but will put it quickly in good physical condition. 
If to good tillage rotation of crops be added, the soil will 
become more fertile with each succeeding year. 

The plow, harrow, and roller are all necessary to good 
tillage and a proper preparation of the seed bed. The soil 
must be compact and clods of all sizes crushed. Then the 
air circulates freely, and paying crops are the rule and not 
the exception. 

EXERCISE 

1 . What tools are used in tillage ? 

2. Why should a poor and shallow soil be plowed shallow ? 

3. Why should a poor and shallow soil be well compacted before 
sowing the crop ? 

4. Explain the value of a circulation of air in the soil. 

5. What causes iron to rust ? 

6. Why is a two-horse turning plow better than a one-horse plow? 

7. Where will clods do the least harm, — on top of the soil or 
below the surface ? 

8. Do plant roots penetrate clods ? 

9. Are earthworms a benefit or an injury to the soil ? 
10. Name three things that a plow does. 



lO AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

SECTION III— THE MOISTURE OF THE SOIL 

Did any one ever explain to you how important water is 
to the soil or tell you why it is so important ? Often, as 
you know, crops entirely fail because there is not enough 
water in the soil for the plants to drink. How necessary 
is it, then, that the soil be kept in the best possible con- 
dition to catch and hold enough water to carry the plant 
through dry, hot spells ! Perhaps you are ready to ask, 
" How does the mouthless plant drink its stored-up water? " 

The plant gets all its water through its roots. You 
have seen the tiny fibrous roots of a plant spreading all 
about in fine soil ; they are down in the ground taking up 
plant food and water for the stalk and leaves above. The 
water, carrying plant food with it, rises, by means of a 
peculiar process, through roots and stems. 

The plants use the food for building new tissue, that is, 
for growth. The water passes out through the leaves into 
the air. When the summers are dry and hot and there 
is but little water in the soil, the leaves shrink up. This 
is simply a method they have of keeping the water from 
passing rapidly off into the air. I am sure you have seen 
the corn stalks all shriveled on very hot days. This 
shrinkage is nature's way of diminishing the current of 
w^ater that is steadily passing through the plant. 

A thrifty farmer will try to keep his soil in such good 
condition that it will have a supply of water in it for growing 
crops when dry and hot weather qomes. He can do this 
by deep plowing, by subsoiling, by adding any kind of 
decaying vegetable matter to the soil, and by growing 
crops that can be tilled frequently. 










*#„^ . ^ 



'/^ iy^^^;:^v 



V*' ' 1;^^ 



^.. >^.i -^^" 



II 



12 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



The soil is a great storehouse for moisture. After the 
clouds have emptied their waters into this storehouse, the 
water of the soil comes to the surface, where it is evapo- 
rated into the air. The water comes to the surface in just 
the same way that oil rises in a lamp wick. This rising 
of the water is called capillarity. 

It is necessary to understand what is meant by this big 
word. If into a pan of water you dip a glass tube, the 

water inside the tube rises above 
the level of the water in the pan. 
The smaller the tube the higher 
will the water rise. The greater 
rise inside is perhaps due to the fact 
that the glass attracts the particles 
of water more than the particles of 
water attract one another. Now 
apply this principle to the soil. 

The soil particles have small 
spaces between them, and these 
spaces act just as the tube does. 
When the water at the surface is 
carried away by drying winds and warmth, the water deeper 
in the soil rises through these soil spaces. In this way 
water is brought from its soil storehouse as plants need it. 
Of course, when this water reaches the surface, it evap- 
orates. If we want to keep it for our crops, we must 
prepare a trap to hold it. Nature has shown us how this 
can be done. Pick up a plank lying on the ground. Under 
the plank the soil is wet, while t"he ^oil not covered by the 
plank is dry. Why.? Capillarity brought the water to the 
surface. The plank, however, keeping away uind and 




Fig. 6. An Enlarged 
View of a Section 
OF Moist Soil show- 
ing Air Spaces and 
Soil Particles 



THE SOIL 



13 



warmth, acted as a trap to hold the moisture. Now of course 
a farmer cannot set a trap of planks over his fields, but he 
can make a trap of dry earth, and that will do just as well. 
When a crop like corn or cotton is cultivated, the fine, 
loose dirt stirred by the cultivating plow will make a mulch 




Fig. 7. Apparatus for testing Retention of Water by 
Different Soils 



that serves to keep water in the soil in the same way the 
plank kept moisture under it. The mulch helps to absorb 
the rains and prevents the water from running off the sur- 
face. Frequent cultivation, then, is one of the best possible 
ways of saving moisture. Hence the planter who most 
frequently stirs his soil in the growing season, and espe- 
cially in seasons of drought, reaps, other things being equal, 
a more abundant harvest than if tillage were neglected. 



14 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



EXERCISE 

1. Why is the soil wet under a board or under straw? 

2. Will a soil that is line and compact produce better crops than 
one that is loose and cloddy? Why? 

3. Since the water which a plant uses comes through the roots, can 
the morning dew afford any assistance ? 

4. Why are weeds objectionable in a growing crop ? 

5. Why does the farmer cultivate growing corn and cotton ? 



SECTION IV— HOW THE WATER RISES IN THE SOIL 



When the hot, dry days of summer come, the soil depends 
upon the subsoil, or undersoil, for the moisture that it 
must furnish its growing plants. The water was stored 

in the soil during 
the fall, winter, and 
spring months when 
there was plenty of 
rain. If you dig 
down into the soil 
when everything is 
dry and hot, }ou will 
reach the cool, moist 
undersoil. It be- 
comes more moist as 
you go deeper into 
^ the soil. 

Now the roots of plants go dov^^n into the soil for this 
moisture, because they need the water to carry the plant 
food up into the stems and leaves. 




Fig. 8. 



Using Lamp Chimneys to show 
Rise of Water in Soi1< 



THE SOIL 15 

You can see how the water rises in the soil by perform- 
ing a simple experiment. 

EXPERIMENT 

Take a lamp chimney and fill it with dry, fine dirt. The dirt 
from a road or a field will do. Tie over the bottom of the lamp 
chimney a piece of cloth or a pocket handkerchief, and place this 
end in a shallow pan of water. If the soil in the lamp chimney is 
clay and well packed, the water will quickly rise to the top. 

By filling three or four lamp chimneys with as many different soils, 
the pupil will see that the water rises more slowly in some than in 
others. 

Now take the water pans away, and the water in the lamp chim- 
neys will gradually evaporate. Study for a few days the effect of 
this evaporation on the several soils. 



SECTION V — DRAINING THE SOIL 

A wise man was once asked, '« What is the most valu- 
able improvement ever made in agriculture .? " He answered, 
** Drainage." Often soils unfit for crop production because 
of the free water in them are by drainage rendered the 
most valuable of farming land. 

The benefits of drainage are as follows : 

1. It deepens the subsoil by removing unnecessary water 
from the spaces between the soil particles. This admits 
air. Then the oxygen which is in the air, by aiding decay, 
prepares plant food for vegetation. 

2. It makes the surface, or topsoil, deeper. It stands 
to reason that the deeper the soil the more plant food 
becomes available for plant use. 



i6 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



3. It improves the texture of the soil. Wet soil is sticky. 
Drainage makes this sticky soil crumble and fall apart. 

4. It prevents washing. 

5. It increases the porosity of soils and permits roots to 
go deeper into the soil for food and moisture. 

6. It increases the warmth of the soil. 

7. It permits earlier working in spring and after rains. 




Fu;. V). Laying a Tile Drain 



8. It favors the growth of germs which change the 
unavailable nitrogen of the soil into nitrates ; that is, into 
the form most useful to plants. 

9. It enables plants to resist drouth better because the 
roots go into the ground deeper^ early in the season. 

A soil that is hard and wet will not grow good crops. 
The nitrogen-gathering crops will store the greatest quan- 
tity of nitrogen in the soil when the soil is open to the 



THE SOIL 



17 



free circulation of the air. These valuable crops cannot 
do this when the soil is wet and cold. 

Sandy soils with sandy subsoils do not need artificial 
drainage ; these soils are naturally drained. With clay soils 
it is different. It is very important to remove the stagnant 
water in them and to let the air in. 

When land has been properly drained, the other steps in 
improvement are easily taken. When soil is dried and 




Fig. 10. A Tile in Position 

mellowed by proper drainage, then commercial fertilizers, 
barnyard manure, cowpeas and clover can each most readily 
do its great work of improving the texture of the soil and 
of making it a cosy home for plants to grow in. 

Tile Drains. Tile drains are the best and cheapest that 
can be used. It would not be too strong to say that 
draining by tiles is the perfection of drainage. Thou- 
sands of practical tests in this country have demonstrated 
the value of tile draining for the following reasons : 



l8 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

1. Good tile drains properly laid last for years and do 
not lill up. 

2. They furnish the cheapest possible means of remo\ing 
excess of water from the soil. 

3 . They are out of reach of all cultivating tools. 

4. Surface water in filtering through the soil leaves its 
nutritious elements for plant growth. 

EXPERIMENTS 

To show the Effect of Drainage. Take two tomato cans and fill 
both with the same kind of soil. Puncture several holes in the bottom 
of one to drain the soil above and to admit air circulation. Leave the 
other unpunctured. Plant seeds of any kind in both cans and keep in 
a warm place. Add every third day equal quantities of water. Let 
seeds grow in both and observe the difterence in growth for two or 
three weeks. 

To show the Effect of Air in Soils. Take two tomato cans : till 
one with soil that is loose and warm, and the other with wet clay or 
muck from a swampy field. Plant a few seeds of the same kind in 
each and observe how much better the dry. warm, open soil is for 
growing farm crops. 



SF.CTIOX VI — IMPROVING THE SOIL 

We hear a great deal nowadays about the exhaustion or 
wearing out of the soil. Manv uncomfortable people are 
always declaring that our lands will no longer produce 
profitable crops, and hence. that farming will no longer pay. 

Now it is true, unfortun^^', that much land has been 
robbed of its fertility, and, because this is true, we should 
be deeply interested in evervthing that pertains to soil 
improvement. 



THE SOIL 



19 



When our country was first discovered and trees were 
growing everywhere, we had virgin soils, or new soils that 
were rich and productive because they were filled with 
vegetable matter and plant food. There are not many 
virgin soils now because the trees have been cut off the 
best lands, and these lands have been farmed so long 




Fig. II. Clover is a Soil Improver 



without much attention that the vegetable matter and 
available plant food have been largely used up. Now that 
fresh land is scarce, it is very necessary to restore fertility 
to these exhausted lands. What are some of the ways 
in which this can be done ? 

There are several things to be done in trying to reclaim 
worn-out land. One of the first of these is to till the land 



20 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

well. Many of you may have heard the story of the dying- 
father who called his sons about him and whispered feebly, 
•' There is great treasure hidden in the garden." The sons 
could hardly wait to bury their dead father before, thud, 
thud, thud, their picks were going in the garden. Day 
after day they dug ; they dug deep ; they dug wide. Not 
a foot of the crop-worn garden escaped the probing of 
the pick as the sons feverishly searched for the expected 
treasure. But no treasure was found. 

" Let us not lose every whit of our labor ; let us plant this 
pick-scarred garden," said the eldest. So the garden was 
planted. In the fall the hitherto poor garden yielded a har- 
vest so bountiful, so unexpected, that the meaning of their 
father's words dawned upon them. " Truly," they said, " a 
treasure was hidden there. Let us seek it in all our fields." 

The story applies as well to-day as it did when it was 
first told. Deep breaking of the soil, frequent and intelli- 
gent tillage, — these are the foundations of soil restoration. 

Along with good tillage must go hillside ditches, or 
terraces, and good drainage. The ditches, or terraces, are 
to prevent heavy rains from washing the soil and carrying 
away plant food. Drainage is to act with good tillage in 
allowing air to circulate between the soil particles and to 
arrange plant food so that plants can use it. 

Then we must add humus, or vegetable matter, to the 
soil. You remember that virgin soils contained a great 
deal of vegetable matter and plant food, but by the con- 
tinuous growing of crops like wTieat, corn, and cotton, and 
by constant shallow tillage, both humus and pl;;int food have 
been used uj). Consequently much of our cultivated soil 
to-day is hard and dead. 



THE SOIL 



21 



There are three ways of adding humus and plant food to 
this hfeless land : the first way is to apply barnyard manure 
(to adopt this method means that livestock raising must be 
a part of all farming) ; the second way is to adopt rotation 




Fig. 12 

Feeding swine on this worn-out field and then tilling it made the 
field productive 

of crops, and occasionally to plow under crops like clover and 
cowpeas ; the third way is to apply commercial fertilizers. 
Then, to summarize: if we want to make our soil better 
year by year, we must cultivate well, drain well, and in the 
most economical way add humus and plant food. 



22 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



EXPERIMENT 

Select a small area of ground at your home and divide it into four 
sections, as shown in the following sketch : 

On Section A apply barnyard manure ; on Section B apply com- 
mercial fertilizers ; on Section C apply nothing, but till well ; on Section 

I) apply nothing, and till very poorly. 

A, B, and C should all be tlioroughly 
plowed and harrowed. Then add barn- 
yard manure to A, commercial fertil- 
izers to B, and harrow A, B, and C at 
least four times until the soil is mellow 
and fine. D will most likely be cloddy, 
like many fields that we often see. 
Now plant on each plat some crop like 
cotton, corn, or wheat. When the plats 
are ready to harvest, measure the yield 
of each and determine whether the in- 
creased yield of the best plats has paid 
for the outlay for tillage and manure. 
The pupil will be much interested in 
the results obtained from the first crop. 
Now follow a system of crop rotation on the plats. Crimson clover 
can follow corn or cotton ; and cowpeas, wheat. Then determine the 
yield of each plat for this second crop. By following these plats for 
several years and increasing the number, the pupils will learn many 
things of greatest value. 

SECTION VII — MANURING THE SOIL 



.1 


D 


1 


c 


. D 



Fig. 13 



In the early days of our history when the soil was new 
and rich, we were not com|5,elled to use large amounts of 
manures and fertilizers. Yef^oi^r histories speak of an 
Indian named Squanto who came into one of the New Eng- 
land colonies and showed the colonists how, by planting a 
fish in each hill of corn, they could obtain larger yields. 



THE SOIL 



23 



If people, in those days with new and fertile soils, could 
use manures profitably, how much more ought we to use 
them in our time when soils have lost their virgin fertility, 
when the plant food in the soil has been exhausted by years 
and years of cropping! 

To sell year after year all the produce grown on land is 
a sure way to ruin it. If, for example, the richest land is 
planted every year in cotton, and no cotton seed, cotton- 
seed meal, or other fertilizer returned to the soil, the land 
so treated will of course 
soon become too poor to 
grow any crop. If, on the 
other hand, the seed from 
the cotton or the meal 
from the seed is fed to 
stock, and the manure 
from the stock returned 
to the soil, the land will 
be kept rich. Hence 
those farmers who sell, 
not such raw products as 
cotton, corn, wheat, oats, 
clover, but who market articles made from these raw prod- 
ucts, find it easier to keep their land fertile. For illustration : 
if instead of selling hay, farmers feed it to sheep and sell 
wool; if instead of selling cotton seed, they feed its meal 
to cows, and sell milk and butter; if instead of selling 
stover, they feed it to beef cattle, they get a good price 
for products and in addition have all the manure needed 
to keep their land productive and increase its value each 
succeeding year. 




Fig. 14. Relation of Humus to 
Growth of Corn 

(i) clay subsoil; (2) same, with fertilizer; 
(3) same, with humus 



J4 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

If we wish to keep up the fertihty of our lands, we 
should not allow anything to be lost from our farms. All 
the manures, straw, roots, stubble, healthy vines — m fact 
everything decomposable, should be plowed under or used 
as a top dressing. Especial care should be taken in stor- 
ing manure. It should be carefully protected from sun 
and rain. If a farmer has no shed under which to keep 
his manure, he shouKl scatter the manure on his fields 
as fast as it is made. 

He should understand also that liquid manure is of more 
value than solid, because that important plant food, nitro- 
gen, is found almost wholly in the liquid portion. Some 
of the phosphoric acid and considerable amounts of the 
potash are also found in the liquid manure. Hence econ- 
omy requires that none of this escape either by leakage or 
by fermentation in the stables. Sometimes one can detect 
the smell of anunonia in the stable. This ammonia is formed 
by the decomposition of the liquid manure, and its loss 
should be checked by sprinkling some gypsum (land plaster) 
or muck over the stable floor. 

On many farms it is desirable to buy fertilizers to sup- 
plement the manure made upon the farm. In this case 
it is helpful to understand the composition, source, and 
availability of the various substances composing commercial 
fertilizers. The three most valuable things in commercial 
fertilizers are nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. 

The nitrogen is obtained from (i) nitrate of soda mined 
in Chile, from (2) ammonium sulphate — a by-product of the 
gas works, from (3) dried blood and other by-products of 
the slaughter-houses, and from (4) cotton-seed meal. Nitrate 
of soda is soluble in water and may therefore be washed away 



THE SOIL 



25 



before being used by plants. For this reason it should be 

applied in small quantities and at intervals of a few weeks. 

Potash is obtained in Germany, where it is found in 

several forms. It is put upon the market as muriate of 




Fig. 15. The Cotton Plant with and without Food 

In left top pot, no plant food ; in left bottom pot, plant food scanty ; in both 
right pots, all elements of plant food present 

potash, sulphate of potash, kainit, which contains salt as 
an impurity, and in other impure forms. Potash is found 
also in tinlcacJicd wood ashes. 

Phosphoric acid is found in various rocks of Tennessee, 
Florida, and South Carolina, and also to a large extent in 



26 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

bones. The rocks or bones are usually treated with sul- 
phuric acid. This treatment changes the phosphoric acid 
into a form available for plant use. 

These three kinds of plant food are ordinarily all that 
we need to supply. In some cases, however, lime has to 
be added. Besides being a plant food itself, lime acts 
beneficially on most soils by improving their physical 
structure ; by sweetening the soil, thereby aiding the 
little living germs called bacteria ; by hastening the decay 
of organic matter; and by liberating the potash that is 
locked up in the soil. 



CHAPTER II 



THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 



SECTION VIII — ROOTS 



You have perhaps observed the regularity of arrange- 
ment in twigs and branches. Now pull up the roots of 
some plant, as for example sheep sorrel, Jimson weed, or 
some other plant. Note the branching 
of the roots. In these there is no such 
regularity as is seen in the twig. Trace 
the rootlets to their finest tips. How 
small, slender, and delicate they are ! 
Still we do not see the finest of them, 
for in taking the plant from the ground 
we tore them away. In order to see 
the real construction of a root we must 
grow one so that we may examine it 
uninjured. To do this, sprout some 
oats in a germinator and allow them to 
grow till they are two or more inches 
high. Now examine the roots and you 
will see very fine hairs, similar to those 
shown in the accompanying figure, 
forming a fuzz over the surface of the roots near the tips. 
This fuzz is made of small hairs standing so close together 
that there are often as many as 38,200 on a single square 

27 




Fig. 16. Root Hairs 
ON A Radish 



2S 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 




Fig. 17. A Slice of 
A Root 

Highly magnified 



inch. Fig. 17 shows a cross section, or sUced-off portion 
of a root, very highly magnified. You can see how the 
root hairs extend from the root in every direction. Fig. 18 

shows a single root hair very greatly 
enlarged, with particles of sand 
sticking to it. 

These hairs are the root's feeding 
g7=V^ organs, and they are formed only 
very near the tips of the finest roots. 
You see that the large, coarse roots 
that you are familiar with have 
nothing to do with absorbing plant 
food from the soil. They serve merely 
to conduct the sap and nourishment 
from the root hairs to the tree. 
When you apply manure or other fertil- 
izer to the tree, remember that it is far 
better to supply the fertilizer to the roots 
that are at some distance from the trunk, 
for such roots are the real feeders. The 
plant food in the manure soaks into the 
soil and immediately reaches the root hairs. 
You can understand this better by study- 
ing the distribution of the roots of an 
orchard tree, shown in Fig. 19. There 
you can see that the fine tips are found 
at a long distance from the main trunk. 

You can now readily see why-it is that 
plants usually wilt when they are transplanted. The fine, 
delicate root hairs are then broken off, and the plant can 
keep up its food and water supply but poorly until new hairs 




Fig. 18. A Root 
Hair with Par- 
ticles OF Soil 

STICKING TO IT 



THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 



29 



have been formed. While these are forming, water has 
been evaporating from the leaves, and consequently the 
plant is insufficiently supplied, and droops. 

Would you not conclude that it is very poor farming to 
till deeply any crop after the roots have extended between 



Loam 



Gravel 



Clay 
Gravel 



Cla 



V 



Clay and Gravel 
Ground Waie-^- 




FiG. 19. Distribution of Apple-Tree Roots 

the rows far enough to be disturbed by the plow or culti- 
vator .? In cultivating between corn rows, for example, if 
you find that you are disturbing fine roots, you may be 
sure that you are breaking off millions of root hairs from 
each plant, and hence are doing harm rather than good. 
Fig. 20 shows how the roots from one corn row intertangle 



30 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



with those of another. You see at a glance how many of 
these roots would be destroyed by deep cultivation. Stir- 
ring the upper inch of soil when the plants are well grown 




Fig. 20. Corn Roots reach from 
Row TO Row 

answers the ends of tillage and 
does no injiiry to the roots. 

A deep soil is much better than 
a shallow soil, as its depth makes 
it just so much easier for the roots 
to seek deep food. Fig. 2 1 illus- 
trates well how far down into the 
soil the alfalfa roots go. 

EXERCISE 




Fig. 21 
Alfalfa Root 



Dig up the roots of several cultivated plants and weeds and com- 
pare them. Do you find some that are' fine or fibrous? some fleshy 
like the carrot? The dandelion is a good example of a tap root. 
Tap roots are deep feeders. Examine very carefully the roots of a 
medium-sized corn plant. Sift the dirt away very gently so as to 



THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 



31 



loosen as few roots as possible. How do the roots compare in area 
with the part above the ground ? Try to trace a single root of the 
corn plant from the stalk to its very tip. How long are the roots of 
mature plants? Are they deep or shallow feeders.^ Germinate some 
oats or beans in a moist chamber as suggested and observe the root 
hairs. 

SECTION IX — HOW A PLANT FEEDS FROM THE SOIL 

Plants receive their nourishment from two sources, — from 
the air and from the soil. The soil food, or mineral food, 
must, dissolved in water, reach the plant through the root 
hairs, with which all plants are provided in great numbers. 
Each of these hairs may be compared 
to a finger reaching among the par- 
ticles of earth for food and water. 
If we examine the root hairs ever so 
closely, we find no holes, or pores, 
in them. It is evident that no solid 
particles can enter the root hairs. 
All food must then pass into the 
root in solution. 

An experiment just here will help 
us to understand how a root feeds. 
Secure a narrow glass tube like the 
one in Fig. 22. If you cannot get 
a tube, a narrow, straight lamp chim- 
ney will, with a little care, do nearly 
as well. Cut from a bladder made soft by soaking, a piece 
large enough to cover the end of the tube or chimney and 
to hang over a little all around. Make the piece of blad- 
der secure to the end of the tube by wrapping tightly 
with a waxed thread, as at B. Partly fill the tube with 




Fig. 22. Experiment 
TO SHOW HOW Roots 
TAKE UP Food 



32 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

molasses (or it may be easier in case you use a narrow tube 
to fill it before attaching the bladder). Put the tube into 
a jar or bottle of water so placed that the level of the 
molasses inside and the water outside will be the same. 
Fasten the tube in this position, and observe it frequently 
for three or four hours. At the end of the time you should 
find that the molasses in the tube has risen above the level 
of the liquid outside. It may even overflow at the top. If 
you use the lamp chimney, the rise will not be so clearly 
seen, since a greater volume is required to fill the space in 
the chimney. This increase in the contents of the tube is 
due to the entrance of water from the outside. The water 
has passed through the thin bladder, or membrane, and has 
come to occupy space in the tube. There is also a passage 
the other way, but the molasses can pass through the bladder 
membrane so slowly that the passage is scarcely noticeable. 
There are no holes, or pores, in the membrane, but still 
there is a free passage of liquids in both directions, although 
the more heavily laden solution must move more slowly. 

A root hair acts in much the same way as the tube in 
our experiment, with the exception that it is so made as to 
allow certain substances to pass in only one direction, that 
is, toward the inside. The outside of the root hair is bathed 
in solutions rich in nourishment. The nourishment passes 
from the outside to the inside through the delicate membrane 
of the root hair. Thus does food enter the plant root. From 
the root hairs, foods are cartied to the inside of the root. 

From this you can see how'impprtant it is for a plant to 
have fine loose soil for its root hairs ; also how necessary 
is the water in the soil, since the food can be used only 
when it is dissolved in water. 



THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 



33 



This passage of liquids from one side of a membrane to 
another is called osmosis^ and has many uses in the plant 
kingdom. We say a root takes nourishment by osmosis. 



SECTION X — ROOT TUBERCLES 

Tubercle is a big word, but you ought to know how to 
pronounce it and what is meant by root tubercles. 

We are going to tell you what a root tubercle is and 
something about its importance to agriculture. When you 
have learned this, we are 
sure you will want to 
examine some plants for 
yourself in order that you 
may see just what tuber- 
cles look like on a real 
root. 

Root tubercles do not 
form on all plants that 
farmers grow. They are 
formed only on those 
kinds that botanists call 
legumes. The clovers, 
cowpeas, vetches, and 
alfalfa are all legumes. 
The tubercles are little 
knotty, wartlike growths 
on the roots of the plants 
just named. These tubercles are caused by bacteria, or 
germs, as they are sometimes called. 




/ 



Fig. 23. 



Tubercles on the Roots 
of a cowpea 



34 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



Instead of living- in nests in trees like birds or in the 
ground like moles and worms, these tiny germs, less than 
one twentv-five thousandth of an inch long, make their 
homes on the roots of these plants. Nestling snugly 
together, they live, grow, and multiply in their sunless 
homes. Through their activity the soil is enriched by the 

addition of much nitro- 
gen from the air. They 
are the good fairies of 
the farmer, and no 
magician's wand e\er 
blessed a land as much 
as these imisible folk 
bless the land that they 
Hve in. 

Just as bees gather 
hone}' from the flowers, 
and carry it to the hives 
where they prepare it 
for their own future 
use and for the use of 

others, so do these root 
Fig. 24. SoTA Beans and Cowpf.as. . 

Two Great Soil Improvers tubercles gather nitro- 

gen from the air and fix- 
it in their root homes, where it can be used by other crops. 
You were told something in the earlier pages of this 
book about the food of plains. One of the main elements 
of plant food, perhaps you i^ie^mber, is nitrogen. Just 
as soon as the roots of the leguminous plants begin to 
push down into the soil, the bacteria, or germs that make 
the tubercles, begin to build their homes on the roots, and 




THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 35 

in so doing they add nitrogen to the soil. You now see 
the importance of growing such crops as peas and clover 
on your land, for by their active aid you can constantly 
add plant food to the soil. Now this much needed nitrogen 
is the most costly part of the fertilizers that farmers buy 
every year. If every farmer, then, would grow these 
tubercle-bearing crops, he would rapidly add to the rich- 
ness of his land and at the same time he would also escape 
the necessity of buying so much expensive fertilizer. 

EXPERIMENT 

Take a spade or shovel and dig carefully around the roots of a 
covvpea and a clover plant; loosen the earth thoroughly and then pull 
them up, being careful not to break off any of the roots. Now wash 
the roots, and after they become dry count the nodules, or tubercles, 
on the roots. Observe the difference in size. How are they arranged ? 
Do all leguminous plants have equal numbers of nodules? How do 
these nodules help the farmer ? 



SECTION XI— THE ROTATION OF CROPS 

I am sure you know what is meant by rotation, for your 
teacher has explained to you already how the earth rotates, 
or turns, on its axis and revolves around the sun. When 
we speak of crop rotation, we mean not only that the same 
crop should not be planted on the same land for two suc- 
cessive years but that crops should follow one another in 
a regular order. 

Many farmers do not follow a system of farming that 
involves a change of crops. In some parts of the country 
the same fields are put to corn or wheat or cotton year 



36 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



after year. This is not a good practice and sooner or later 
will wear out the soil completely, because the soil elements 
that furnish the food of that constant crop are soon exhausted 
and good crop production is no longer possible. 

Why is crop rotation so necessary ? There are different 
kinds of plant food in the soil. If any one of these is used 
up, the soil of course loses its power to feed plants properly. 




Fig. 



Grass following Corn 



Now each crop uses more of some of these different kinds 
of foods than others do, just as you like some kinds of 
food better than others. The crop, however, cannot, as 
you can, learn to use the kinds of food it does not like: 
it must use the kind that nature fitted it to use. Not only 
do different crops feed upon different soil foods, but they 
use different quantities of these foods. 



THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 37 

Now if a farmer plant the same crop in the same field each 
year, that crop soon uses up all of the available plant food 
that it likes. Hence the soil can no longer properly nour- 
ish the crop that has been year by year robbing it. If that 
crop is to be successfully grown again upon the land, the 
exhausted element must be restored. 

This can be done in two ways : first, by finding out 
what element has been exhausted and then by restoring 
this element either by means of commercial fertilizers or 
manure; second, by planting on the land crops that feed 
on different food and that will allow or assist kind Mother 
Nature "to repair her waste places." An illustration may 
help you to remember this fact. An element called nitro- 
gen is one of the commonest plant foods. Nitrogen may 
almost be called plant bread. The wheat crop uses up 
a good deal of nitrogen. Suppose a field were planted 
in wheat year after year. Most of the available nitrogen 
would be taken out of the soil after a while, and a new 
wheat crop, if planted on the field, would not get enough 
of its proper food to yield a paying harvest. This same 
land, however, that could not grow wheat could produce 
other crops that do not require so much nitrogen. For 
example, it could grow cowpeas. Cowpeas, aided by their 
root tubercles, are able to gather a great part of the 
nitrogen needed for their growth from the air. Thus a 
good crop of peas can be obtained even if there is little 
available nitrogen in the soil. On the other hand, wheat 
and corn and cotton cannot utilize the free nitrogen of 
the air, and they suffer if there is an insufficient quantity 
present in the soil. Hence the necessity of growing 
legumes to supply the deficiency. 



33 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



Let us now see how easily plant food may be economized 
by the rotation of crops. 

If you sow wheat in the autumn, it is ready to be har- 
vested in June, the very month for planting cowpeas. Plow 
the wheat stubble under, and sow the same field to cowpeas. 




Fig. 26. Cowpeas and Corn — August 
By courtesy of Director B. W. Kilgore, from a forthcoming Bulletin 



If the wheat crop has exhausted the greater part of the 
nitrogen of the soil, it makes no difference ; for the cow- 
pea will get its nitrogen from the ^ir, and not only provide 
for its own growth, but, in the queer nodules of its roots, 
will leave quantities of nitrogen for the crops' coming after 
it in the rotation. 



THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 



39 



If cotton be planted, there should be a rotation in just 
the same way. The cotton plant, a summer grower, of 
course uses a certain portion of the plant food stored in 
the soil. In order that it may feed on what the cotton 
did not use, the crop following cotton should be one that 
requires a somewhat different food. Moreover, it should 




Fig. 27. CowPEAs and Corn — October 
By courtesy of Director B. W. Kilgore, from a forthcoming Bulletin 

be one that fits in well with cotton so as to make a winter 
crop. We find just such a plant in clover. Like the cowpea, 
all the different varieties of clover have on their roots tuber- 
cles that add the important element, nitrogen, to the soil. 

From these facts is it not safe to conclude that if you 
wish to improve your land quickly and keep it always 
fruitful you must practice crop rotation ? 



40 



ACRICI Lll RE FOR BEGINxNERS 



Ax Illustkatiox of Crot Rotation 

Here is a system of rotation of crops as practiced at the 
North CaroUna Agricultural and Mechanical College. It 
furnishes an ideal system of land preservation: 



First Year 


1 
Second Year 


Third Year 


Summer 


Winter 


Summer 


Winter 


1 
Summer Winter 


Corn 


Crimson 
clover 


Cotton 


Wheat 


Cowpeas 


Rye for 

pasture 



If you analyze this rotation, you will find two nitrogen 
crops (cowpeas and crimson clover) for soil improvement 
and hav ; two grain and fiber crops (wheat and cotton) for 
money crops ; two cultivated crops (corn and cotton) for 
phvsical improvement of the soil and to kill weeds ; and two 
live-stock crops (corn, and rye pasture) for pasture and 
ensilage. 

EXERCISE 

Let the pupils each present a svstem of rotation that includes the crops 
raised at home. The system presented should as nearly as possible meet 
the following requirements : 

1 . Legumes for gathering nitrogen. 

2. Money crops for cash income. 

3. Cultivated crops for tillage and weed destruction. 

4. Food crops for feeding^ live stock. 



CHAPTER III 

THE PLANT 

SECTION XII — HOW A PLANT FEEDS FROM 

THE AIR 

If you partly burn a match, you will see that it becomes 
black. This black substance is called carbon. Examine a 
fresh stick of charcoal and estimate how much of a plant 
is carbon. You see in the -charcoal every fiber that you 
saw in the wood itself. This means that every part of 
the plant contains carbon. How important, then, is this 
substance to the plant ! 

You will be surprised to know that all of the carbon in 
plants comes from the air. All the carbon that a plant gets 
is taken in by the leaves of the plant. Not a particle is 
taken by the roots. 

A large tree, weighing perhaps ii,ooo pounds, requires 
in its growth carbon from 16,000,000 cubic yards of air. 

Perhaps, after these statements, you may think there is 
danger that the carbon of the air may sometime become 
exhausted. The air of the whole world contains about 
1,760,000,000,000 pounds of carbon. Moreover, this is 
continually being added to by our fires and by the breath 
of animals. When wood or coal is used for fuel, the 
carbon of the burning substance is returned to the air in 
the form of gas. Some large factories burn great quan- 
tities of coal, and thus turn much carbon back to the air. 

41 



42 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

A single factory in Germany is estimated to give back to 
the air daily about 5,280,000 pounds of carbon. You see 
that the air is thus being replenished to make up for the 
carbon taken by the growing plants. 

The carbon of the air can be used by none but green 
plants, and by them only in the sunlight. We may com- 
pare the green coloring matter of the leaf to a machine, 
and the sunlight to the power, or energy, which keeps the 
machine in motion. By means, then, of sunlight and the 
green coloring matter of the leaves, the plant secures carbon. 
The carbon passes into the plant and is there made into two 
foods very necessary to the plant, namely, starch and sugar. 

Sometimes the plant uses the starch and sugar immedi- 
ately. At other times it stores both away, as in the Irish 
and the sweet potato, beets, cabbage, peas, and beans. 
These plants are used as food by man because they contain 
so much nourishment, that is, starch and sugar that was 
stored away by the plant for its own future use. 

EXERCISE 

Examine some charcoal. Can vou see the rings of growth.? 
Slightly char paper, cloth, meat, sugar, starch, etc. What does the 
turning black prove ? What per cent of these substances do you 
think is pure carbon ? 

SECTION XTII — THE SAP CURRENT 

The root hairs take nourishment from the soil. The 
leaves manufacture starch and suirar. These manufactured 
foods must be carried to all parts of the plant. There are 
two currents to carry them. One passes from the roots 



THE PLANT 



43 



through the young wood to the leaves, and one, a down- 
ward current, passes through the bark, carrying needed food 

to the roots (see Fig. 28). 

If you should injure the roots, the 
water supply to the leaves would be 
cut off and the leaves immediately 
wither. On the other hand, if you 
remove the bark, that is, girdle the 
tree, you in no way interfere with 
the water supply and the leaves do 
not wither. Girdling does, however, 
interfere with the downward food 
current through the bark. 

If the tree be girdled, the roots 
sooner or later suffer from lack of 
food supply from 
the leaves. 
Owing to this 
food stoppage, 
the roots will 
cease to grow, 
and will soon be 
unable to take in 
sufficient water, and then the leaves will 
begin to droop. This, however, may not 
happen until several months after the yig -^q 
girdling. Sometimes a partly girdled 
branch grows much in thickness just 
above the girdle, as in Fig. 29. This 
extra growth seems to be due to a stoppage of the rich 
supply of food which was on its way to the roots through 




/wat 

& Minerals 



Fig. 28. Movement of 
THE Sap Current 




A Thicken- 
ing above the Wire 
that caused the 
Girdling 



44 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



the bark. It could go no farther, and was therefore used 
by the tree to make at this point an unnatural growth. 

It is, then, the general law of sap movement that the 
upward current from the roots passes through the woody 
portion of the trunk, and that the current bearing the food 
made by the leaves passes downward through the bark. 

EXERCISE 

Let the teacher see that these and all other experiments are performed 
by the pupils. Do not allow them to guess, but make them see. 

Girdle valueless trees or sai)lings of several kinds, cutting the 
bark away in a complete circle around the tree. Do not cut into the 
wood. How long before the tree shows signs of injury? Girdle 
a single small limb on a tree. What happens ? Explain. 



stig.-c:^ 



SECTION XIV — THE FLOWER AND THE SEED 

Some people think that the flowers by the wayside are 
for the purpose of beautifying the world and increasing 
man's enjoyment. Do you think this is 
true ? Undoubtedly the flower is beau- 
tiful, and to be beautiful is one of the 
uses of many flowers ; but that is not 
the chief use of a flower. 

You know that when peach or apple 

blossoms are nipped by the spring frost 

the fruit crop is jn danger. The fruit of 

the plant bears thd seed, and the flower 

• v'O- l*ARTs OK produces the fruit. That is itS' chief duty. 

Do you know any plant that produces 

seed without flowers ? Some one answers, " The corn, the 

elm, and maple all produce seed, but have no flower." No, 




Fig. 



THE PLANT 



45 



that is not correct. If you look closely you will find in the 
spring very small flowers on the elm and on the maple, while 
the ear and the tassel are really the blossoms of the corn 




Stamen 



Petal 



Pistil Pistil 



Stamen 



Sepal 



Fir,. x\. A KuTTKKcup 




plant. Although they may sometimes seem very curious 
flowers, yet every plant that produces seed has flowers. 

Let us see what a flower really is. Take, for example, a 
buttercup, cotton, tobacco, 
or plum blossom (see Figs. 
31 and 32). You will find 
on the outside a row of 
green leaves inclosing the 
flower when it is still a 
bud. These leaves are the 
sepals. Next on the inside 
is a row of colored leaves, 
or petals. Arranged inside 
of the petals are some 




Anther 
■Stamen 
Stamen 

.-.-Pistil 

■Petal 



Fig. 32. A Plum Blossom 



threadlike parts, each with a knob on the end. These are the 
stamens. Examine one stamen closely (Fig. 33). On the 
knob at its tip you should find, if the flower is fully open. 



46 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGIf^NERS 




B 

Stamens 
a, anther ; /, filament. 



some fine grains, or powder. In the lily, this powder is so 
abundant that in smelling the flower you often brush a 
quantity of it off on your nose. This 
substance is called pollen, and the knob 
on the end of the stamen in which the 
pollen is borne is the ajithcr. 

The pollen is of very great importance 
to the flower. Without it there could 
be no seeds. The stamens as pollen 
bearers, then, are very important. But 
there is another part to each flower that 
is of equal value. This part you will 
find in the center of the flower, inside 
the circle of stamens. It is called the 
pistil (Fig. 32). The swollen tip of the 
pistil is the stig^na. The swollen base of the pistil forms 
the ovary. If you care- 
fully cut open this ovary, 
you will find in it very 
small immature seeds. 

Some plants bear all 
these parts in the same 
flower ; that is, each blos- 
som has stamens, pistil, 
petals, and sepals. The 
pear and tomato blossoms 
represent such flowers. 
Other plants bear their 
stamens and pistils in 
separate blossoms. Stamens and pistils may even occur 
in separate plants, and some blossoms have no sepals or 



^—st 




Fig. 34. Tomato Blossom 



THE PLANT 



47 




petals at all. Look at the corn plant. Here the tassel is 
a cluster of many flowers, each of which bears only stamens. 
The ear is likewise a cluster of many flowers, each of which 
bears only a pistil. The dust that you see falling from the 
tassel is the pollen, and the long silky threads of the ear 
are the stigmas. 

Now no plant can bear seeds unless the pollen of the 
stamen fall upon the stigma. Corn cannot therefore make 
seed unless the dust of the tassel fall upon the silk. 
Did you ever 



notice how 
poorly the cob 
is filled on a 
single corn 
stalk standing 
alone in the 
field .'* Do you 

see why t It is because that, when a plant stands %| 
alone, the wind blows the pollen away from the 
tassel, and little or none is received on the stigmas below. 
In the corn plant the stamens and pistils are separate ; 
that is, they do not occur on the same flower although 
they are upon the same plant. This is also true of the 
squash (see Fig. 35). In many plants, however, as the 
hemp, hop, sassafras, willow, and others, the staminate parts 
are on one plant and the pistillate parts are on another. 
This is also true in several other cultivated plants. For 
example, in some strawberries the stamens are absent or 
useless ; that is, they bear no good pollen. In such cases 
the grower must see to it that near by are strawberry plants 
that bear stamens in order that these plants which do not 



Fig. 35. Squash Blossoms 




48 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

bear pollen may become pollinated^ that is may have pollen 
carried to them. After the stigma has been supplied with 
pollen, a single pollen grain sends a threadlike sprout down 
through the stigma into the ovary. This process if success- 
fully completed is called fertilization. 

EXERCISE 

Examine several flowers and identify the parts named in the last 
chapter. Try in proper season to find the pollen in the maple, willow, 
alder, and pine, wheat, cotton, and morning-glory. 

How fast does the ovary of the apple blossom enlarge ? Measure 
one and watch it closely from day to day. Can you find any plants 
that have their stamens and ovaries on separate individuals ? 

SECTION XV — POLLINATION 

Nature uses several interesting ways to secure pollen 
transportation. In the corn, willow, and pine, the pollen is 
picked up by the wind and carried away. Much of it is lost, 
but some reaches the stigmas or receptive parts of other corn, 
willow, or pine flowers. This is a very wasteful method, 
and all plants using it must provide much pollen. 

Many plants employ a much better method. They have 
learned how to make insects bear their pollen. In plants of 
this type, the parts of the blossom are so shaped and so 
placed as to deposit pollen from the stamen on the insect 
and to receive pollen from the msect upon the stigmas. 

When you see the clumsy bumblebee clambering over 
and pushing his way into a clover blossom, you may be 
sure that he is getting well dusted with pollen and that 
the next blossom he visits will secure a full share on its 
stigma. 



THE PLANT 



49 



When flowers fit themselves to insect pollination, they 
can no longer use the wind, and are helpless if insects do 
not visit them. They therefore cunningly resort to two 
chief means to make sure of the visits of insects. First, 
they provide a sweet nectar as a repast for the insect 
visitor. The nectar is a sugary solution found in the bot- 
tom of the flower and is used by the visitor as food or to 




Fig. 36. liEES CARRYING PoLLEN \ 

make honey. Second, flowers advertise to let the insect 
world know that they have something for it. The adver- 
tising is done by means either of showy colors or of fra- 
grant perfume. Insects have wonderful powers of smell. 
You may hereafter know that showy or fragrant flowers 
are advertising the presence either of nectar or pollen (to 
make beebrcad) and that they are also dependent upon 
insects for pollination. 



50 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

A season of heavy, cold rains during blossoming time 
may often injure the fruit crop by preventing timely visits 
from insects. You now also understand why plants often 
refuse to produce seeds indoors. They cannot, since they 
are shut in, receive proper insect visits. Plants such as 
tomatoes or other garden fruits dependent upon insect 
pollination must, if raised in the greenhouse, be pollinated 
by hand. 

EXERCISE 

Exclude insect visitors from some flower or flower cluster, e.g. 
clover, by covering with a paper bag, and see if they can produce seeds 
that are capable of growing. Compare, as to number and vitahty, the 
seeds of such a flower with those of an uncovered flower. Observe 
insects closely. Do you ever find pollen on them? What kinds of 
insects visit the clover ? the cowpea ? the sourwood ? the flax ? Is 
wheat pollinated by insects or by wind or by some other means? 
Do bees fly in rainy weather? How will a long rainy season at 
blossoming time affect the apple crop ? Why ? Should bees be kept 
in an orchard ? Why ? 



SECTION XVI — CROSSES, HYBRIDS, AND CROSS 
POLLINATION 

In our study of flowers and their pollination we have seen 
that the seed is usually the descendant of two parents or at 
least of two organs : one the ovary, producing the seed, the 
other the pollen, which is necessary to fertilize the ovary. 

It happens that sometimes the pollen of one blossom 
fertilizes the ovary of its own flower, but riiore often the 
pollen from one plant fertilizes the ovary of another plant. 
This latter method is called cross pollination.. As a rule, 
cross pollination produces a stronger seed, that is, a seed 



THE PLANT 



51 



that will produce a better plant. Cross pollination by 
hand is often used by plant breeders when, for purposes 
of seed selection, a specially strong plant is desired. The 
steps in hand pollination are as follows: (i) remove the 
anthers before they open to prevent them from 
polHnating the stigma (the 
steps in this process are illus- 
trated in Figs. 37, 38, and 
39) ; (2) cover the flower 
thus treated with a paper bag 
to prevent access of stray 
pollen (see Fig. 40) ; (3) 
when the ovary is sufficiently 
developed, carry pollen to 
the stigma by hand from the 
anthers of another plant 
which you have selected to 
furnish it, and rebag to pre- 
vent access of any stray pol- 
len which might accidentally 
get in ; (4) collect seed when 
mature and label properly. 

Hand pollination has this 
advantage, — you know both 
parents of your seed. If 

pollination occur naturally, you know the maternal but have 
no means of judging the paternal parent. You can readily 
see, therefore, how hand pollination enables you to secure 
seed derived from two well-behaved parents. 

Sometimes we can breed one kind of plant upon another. 
The result of such cross breeding is known as a hybrid. In 




Fig. 37 

The bud on right at top is in proper con- 
dition for removal of anthers ; the 
anthers have been removed from the 
buds below 



52 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



the animal kini;cl()ni \vc have in llic nuilc a common example 

of this cross breedini;". IMant hybrids were formerly called 

mules also, but this suggestive term is now about out of use. 

It is only when plants of two distinct kinds are crossed 





V\C. :5s. OUANdK l^I.OSSOM PKKPAKKIi KOR CROSSING 
I'ii'st, l)utl ; second, antliors unrenioved ; third, antlicMS removed 



that llic result is called a hybriil; for example, a blackjack 
oak on a white oak, an ajiple on a })ear. If the parent 
j)lants are more closely related, as, for example, an a}")ple of 






Fi 



OSSOM RKADY Tt) CROSS 



G. 3c). Tomato IIl( 
First, bud; second, anthers unreittoved ; third, anthers removed 

one kind with another variety of apple, the result is known 
simply as a cross. 

Hybrids and crosses are valuable in that they usually 
differ from lH)lh parents yet combine some of the qualities 



THE PLANT 



53 



of each, emphasizing some, omitting others. They thus 
often produce an interesting new kind of plant. Some- 
times we arc able by hybridization to combine in one plant 
the good qualities of two other plants, and thus make a great 
advance in agriculture. The new forms brought about by 
liybridization may be fixed or made permanent by such 




Fig. 40 

First, blossom bagged to prevent access of stray pollen ; second, fruit bagged 

for protection 



selection as is mentioned in Section XVIII. Hybridization 
is of great aid in originating new plants. 

It often happens that a plant will be more fruitful when 
pollinated by one variety than by some other variety. 
This is well illustrated in the accompanying figure (Fig. 41). 
A fruit grower or farmer should know much about these 
subjects before selecting varieties for his orchard, vine- 
yard, etc. 



54 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

EXERCISE 

Consult Bulletin 29, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Read Bailey's " Plant Breeding," and then attempt to cross some 
plants. You must remember that many crosses must be attempted 
in order to gain success with even a few. 



SECTION XVIT — PLANT PROPAGATION BY BUDS 

It is the business of the farmer to propagate plants. 
This he does in one of two ways : by buds, that is by 
small pieces cut from parent plants, or by seeds. The 
chief aim in l:)()th methods should be to secure in the 
most convenient manner the best paying plants. 

Many plants are most easily and quickly propagated by 
buds, as for example the grape, red raspberry, fig, and 
many others that we cultivate for the flower only, such as 
the carnation, geranium, rose, and begonia. 

In growing plants from cuttings, a piece is taken from 
the kind of plant that one wishes to grow. The greatest 
care must be exercised in order to get a healthy cutting. 
If we take a cutting from a poor plant, what can we expect 
but to grow a poor plant like the one from which our 
cutting was taken "^ On the other hand, if a fine, strong, 
vigorous, fruitful i^lant be ^ selected, we shall expect to 
produce just such a fine, strong, fruitful plant. 

We expect the cutting to make just exactly the same 
variety of plant as the parent stock. We nlust therefore 
decide upon the variety of berry, grape, fig, carnation, or 
rose that we wish to propagate, and then look for the 
strongest and most promising plants of this variety at our 




Fig. 41 

Brighton pollinated by (i) Salem, (2) Creveling, (3) Lindley, (4) Brighton, 
(5) Self-pollinated, (6) Nectar, (7) Jefferson, (8) Niagara 

55 



56 



ACKKULi UKr: I'OK i;i:(;innI':rs 



disposal. The ulinosl care will iiol produce a fine plant if 
we start from poor stock. 

What cpialities are most desirable in a plant from which 
cuttin<;s are to be taken ? Mrst, it should be ])roductive, 
hardy, and lit b)r your climate and your needs ; second, it 
should be healthy. Do not take cuttinjjs from a diseased 



,/>- 



K 




















l''ir,. .\2. (ll'.KAMI'M Cl TIINC. 
Sliowiii^t,' (Irptli 1(1 wliiili i uttiiig should In- pLintrd 

l^lant, since the cuttini;" may carry the disease, as it often 
does in the case of the chrysanthemum and carnLition. 

(\it tint's may be taken from \arious parts of the })lant, 
sometimes even from jnuts oi the leaf, as in' the begonia 
(Fig. 46). More often, however, they are drawn from parts 
of the stem (V'igs. 43, 44, 45). As to the age of the twig 
from which the cutting is to be taken, Professor Bailey 



THE PLANT 



57 




says : •' Vov most ])]cUits the proper age or maturity ol 
wood for the making of cuttings may be determined by 

giving the twig a cjuick l)end ; if it 
snaps and hangs l)y the ])ark, it is 
"""^^ in proper condition. If it liends 
without breaking, it is too young 
and soft or too old. If it splinters, 
it is too old and woody." Some 
plants, as the geranium, succeed 
better if the cuttings from which 
they are grown are taken from soft, 
Fic. /|3. young parts of the plant ; others, 

(iKAi'K Ciri riN(; for example, the grai)e or rose, do 
Showing depth to which cutting better when the cutting is made 

sliould be ]jl;intwl 

from more mature wood. 

Cuttings may vary in size, 
and may include one or mf)re 
buds. After a hardy, vigorous 
cutting is made, insert it a])out 
one half or one third of its 
length in soil. A soil free from 
organic matter is much the best, 
since in such soil cuttings are 
much less lial)le to disease. A 
fine, clean sand is commonly 
used by professional gardeners. 
When cuttings have rooted 
well, — this may require a 
month or more, — they may be transplanted to larger pots. 

Sometimes, instead of cutting off a piece and rooting 
that, portions of branches are made to root before they 




W^/M/WWV 



Fk;. 44. Carnation CirrriNO 



58 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



are separated from the jxirent plant. This method is often 
followed and is known as layering. It is a simple process. 
Just bend the tip of a bough down and bury it in the earth 
(see Fig". 47). The raspberry and blackberry form layers 
naturally, but man often aids them by burying the over- 
hanging tii:>s in the earth, so that more tips may readily 
root. The strawberry develops runners that root them- 
selves in a similar fashion. 

Grafts and buds are really 
^--^^^ cuttings which, instead 








• ^y"^- ) of being buried in sand 

t o p r o d u c e 

roots of their 

own, are 

placed upon 



Fig. 45. RosK 

CUTTINC. 



the roots of other plants. 
Grafting and budding are practiced 
when these methods are more convenient than 
cuttimr or when the gardener thinks there is 
danger of failure to got plants to take root 
as cuttings. Neither grafting nor budding is, however, 
necessary for the raspberry or the grape, for these propagate 
most readily from cuttings. 

It is often the case that a budded or grafted plant is 
more fruitful than a plant upon its own roots. In cases 
of this kind, of course, grafts orT)U(^s are used. 

The while, or Irish, potato is usually propagated from 
pieces of the potato itself. r:ach piece used for planting 
bears one eye or more. The potato itself is really an 
underground stem and the eyes are buds. This method of 
propagation is therefore really a peculiar kind of cutting. 



TIIK PLANT 



59 



Since the eye is a bud and our potato plant for next 
year is to develop from this bud, it is of much importance, 
as we have seen, to know exactly what kind of plant our 
potato comes from. If our potato is taken from a small 
plant that had but a few poor potatoes in the hill, we may 
expect the bud to produce a similar plant next year and 
a correspondingly poor crop. We must sec to it, then, 
that our seed potatoes come from vines that were good 
producers, because new 
potato plants arc like 
the plants from which 
they were grown. Of 
course we cannot tell 
when our potatoes are 
in the bin from what 
kind of plants they came. 
We must therefore select 
our seed potatoes in the 
field. Seed potatoes 
should always be 
selected from those hills 
that produce most 
bountifully. Be assured that the increased yield will richly 
repay this care. It matters not so much whether the seed 
potato be large or small ; it must, however, come from a 
hill bearing a large yield of fine potatoes. 

Sweet potato plants are produced from shoots, or grow- 
ing buds, taken from the potato itself, so that in llicir 
case too the piece that we use in propagating is a part 
of the original plant, and will therefore be like it under 
similar conditions. Just as with the Irish potato, it is 




I'k;. 46. Iir,(;(jNiA Lkai" Cii'iting 



6o 



AGRICULTURE FOR HK(;iNNERS 



important to know how good a yieldcr you are planting. 
You should watch during harvest and select for propagation 
for the next year only such plants as yield best. 

We should exercise fully as much care in selecting 
proper individuals from which to make a cutting or a layer 
as we do in selecting a proper individual of live stock to 
breed from. Just as we select the finest Jersey in the herd 
for breeding purposes, so we should choose first the variety 
of plant we desire, and then the finest individual plant of 

that variety. 

If the variety of the potato 
that we desire to raise be 
Early Rose, it is not enough 
to select any Early Rose 
plants, but the very best 
Early Rose plants to furnish 
our seed. 

It is not enough to select 
large, fine potatoes for cut- 
tings. A large potato may not produce a bountifully yielding 
plant. // iv ill produce a plant like tlic o)ic tJiat produced it. 
It may be that this one large potato was the only one pro- 
duced by the original plant. If so, the plant that grows from 
it will tend to be similarly unproductive. Thus you see the 
importance of selecting in t/ie field a plant that has exactly 
the qualities desired in the new plant. 

One of the main reasons why gardeners .raise plants 
from buds instead of from seeds is that the seed of many 
plants will not produce plants like the parent. This failure 
"to come true," as it is called, is sometimes of value, for it 
occasionally leads to improvement. l^\)r exami)le, suppose 




Fig. 47. Layering 



THE PLANT 



6l 



that a thousand apple or other fruit or flower seeds from 
plants usually propagated by cuttings be planted; it may 
be that one out of a thousand or a million will be a very 
valuable plant. If a valuable plant be so produced, it should 
be most carefully guarded, multiplied by cuttings or grafts, 
and introduced far and wide. It is in this way that new 
varieties of fruits and flowers are produced. 

Sometimes, too, a sins^le bud on a tree 
will differ from other buds and will 
produce a branch different from other 
branches. This is known as bud varia- 
tion. When there is thus developed a 
branch which happens to be of superior 
kind, it should be propagated by cuttings 
just as you would propagate it if it had 
originated from a seed. 

Mr. Gideon of Minnesota planted many 
apple seeds, and from them all raised one 
tree that was very fruitful, finely flavored, 
and able to withstand the cold Minnesota 
winter. This tree he multiplied by grafts Fio. 48. Currant 

1 1 1 xTr 1 1 1 T • -1 CUITING 

and named the Wealthy apple. It is said 
that in giving this one apple to the world he benefited the 
world to the value of more than one million dollars. You 
must not let any valuable bud or seed variant be lost. 



Plants to be propagated from Buds 

The following list gives the names and methods by which 
our common garden fruits and flowers are propagated : 
Figs: use cuttings 8 to 10 inches long or layer. 
Grapes: use long cuttings, layer, or graft upon old vines. 



62 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

Apples: graft upon seedlings, usually crab seedlings one 
year old. 

Pears: bud upon pear seedlings. 

Cherries: bud upon cherry stock. 

Plums: bud upon peach stock. 

Peaches: bud upon peach or plum seedlings. 

Quinces: use cuttings or layering. 

Blackberries: layer; remove old stem after fruiting. 

Raspberries : layer; remove old stem. 

Red raspberries: propagate by root cuttings. 

Strawberries : propagate by runners. 

Currants 2ind gooseberries: use long cuttings (these plants 
grow well only in cool climates. If attempted in warm 
climates, set in cold exposure). 

Carnations, geraninms, roses, begonias, etc. : propagate by 
cuttings rooted in sand and then transplanted to small 
pots. 

EXERCISE 

Propagate fruits (grape, fig, strawberry) of various kinds ; also 
ornamental plants. How long does it take them to root? Geraniums 
rooted in the spring will bloom in the fall. Do you know any one 
who selects " seed " potatoes properly ? Try a careful selection of 
seed at next harvest time. 



SECTION XVIII— Pl^NT SEEDING 

In propagating by seed, as in reproducing .by buds, we 
select a portion of the parent plant — for a seed is surely 
a part of the parent plant — and place it in the ground. 
There is, however, one great difference between a seed 
and a bud. The bud is really a piece of the parent plant, 



THE PLANT 63 

but a piece of one plant only; while a seed comes from 
the parts of two plants. 

You will understand this fully if you read carefully 
Sects. XIV, XV, and XVI. Since the seed is made of 
two plants, the plant that springs from a seed is much 
more hkely to differ from its mother plant, that is, from 
the plant that produces the seed, than is a plant produced 
merely by buds. In some cases plants *' come true to 
seed " very accurately. In others they vary greatly. For 
example, when we plant the seed of wheat, turnips, rye, 
onions, tomatoes, tobacco, or cotton, we get plants that are 
in most respects hke the parent plant. On the other 
hand, the seed of a Crawford peach, or a Baldwin apple, 
or a Bartlett pear will not produce plants like its parent, 
but will rather resemble its wild ancestors of years ago. 
These seedlings, thus taking after their ancestors, are 
always far inferior to our present cultivated forms. In 
such cases seeding is not practicable, and we must resort 
to bud propagation of one sort or another. 

While, in a few plants like those just mentioned, the seed 
does not ''come true," most plants, as for example cotton, 
tobacco, and others, do "come true." When we plant 
King cotton, we may expect to raise King cotton. There 
will, however, be some or even considerable variation in 
the field, as every one knows. Some plants even in exactly 
the same soil will be better than the average, and some will 
be poorer. Now we see this variation in the plants of our 
field, and we believe that the plant will be in the main like 
its parent. What should we learn from this.? Surely that 
if we wish to produce sturdy, healthy, productive plants we 
must go into our field and pick out just such plants to 




1"'k;s. 4v> ANn 50. cukvs an iukmi m anp Astakalii s 



<-U 



THE I'LANT 



65 



secure seed from as we wish to produce another year. If wc 
wait until the seed is separated from the plant that i)roduced 
it before we select our cotton seed, we shall be planting seed 
from poor as well as good plants, and must be content with a 
crop of just such stock as we have i)lanted. By selecting 
seed from the most productive plants in the field, and ])y 
repeating the selection each year, you can continually improve 
the breed of the plant you are raising. In applying this to 
cotton you may follow the plan suggested for wheat below. 




Fio. 51. Two Vakik'iii;s ok Fi.ax from Onk I'auknt Stock 
After original in " Year Book," United States Department of Agriculture 



The difference that you see between the wild and cul- 
tivated chrysanthemums and the samples of asparagus 
shown in I'^igs. 49 and 50 was brought about by just such 
continuous seed selection. 

By the careful selection of seed from the longest flax 
plants, the increase in length shown in the accompanying 
figure was attained. The selection of seed from those plants 
bearing the most seed, but regardless of the height of the 
plant, has produced flax like that to the right in the illus- 
tration. These two kinds of flax are from the same parent 



66 ACKicui/ruRi': for iucginni^rs 

slock, l)iil slii;hl tlilTcicMiccs ha\c l)ccii emphasized by con- 
tinued Slid Si-lcctio)i, until \vc now have really two varieties 
of flax, one a heaxy seetl bearer, the other producing a 
Ion*;- liber. 

You can in a similar way improve your cotton or any 
other seed crop. Sugar beets have been made by seed 
selection to ])i"o(hice about double the percentage ot sugar 
that they did a lew }'ears ago. It costs too much and is 
too laborious to prei)are and to till land to allow it to be 
planted with pooi" seed. Ihe lollowing are the (jualilies 
of the j)arent plant that ought to be sought for in trying 
by seed selection to improve the )ield of the cotton stalk: 
fu'st, seed should bt.' choscMi only from j)lants that bear 
many well Idled bolls ot long staple cotton; second, seed 
should be taken tiom no j)lant that does not b)' its health)' 
condition show hartlihood in lesisting disease antl drought. 

The i)lan of c-hoosing seeds from selected jilants ma)' 
be applied to wheat ; but it would be too time-consuming 
to select enough single wheat plants to furnish all of thc^ 
seed wheat for next )'car. In this case adopt the following 
plan. in iMg. 5 J, let .1 icj)resent the total size of your 
wheal field, and let />* represcMit a i)lat large enough to fur- 
nish seed lor the whole liekl. At harvest lime go into 
seiiion ./ and select the best i)lanls \'ou can fuul. Pick 
the heads ol these and thresh them by hand. The seed 
so obtained nnist be carefully saved for your next sowing. 

In the fall sow these selected seeds in area />. This area 
should produce the best wheat. At the next harvest cull 
not from the whole field but from the fmest }')lanls of 
plat />, and again save these as seed for plat />. l^se the 
unculled seed from plat /> to sow )'our crop. By following 



THE PLANT 



67 



this plan continuously you will have every year seed from 
several generations of choice plants, and will each year 
improve your seed. 

It is of course advisable to move ycjur seed plat //every year 
or two. Select for the new plat land that has recently been 
planted in legumes. Always give this plat unwearying care. 

In this selection of plants from which to get seed, you 
must know what kind of plants are really the best seed plants. 











li 








i 



l''i(;. 52 



Vwt^^X, yoii must not regard sin<j^le heads or grains, but must 
select seed fro7n the most perfect plant, looking at the plant 
as a whole and not at any single part of it. A first con- 
sideration is yield. Select the plants that yield best and 
are at the same time resistant to drouth, resistant to rust 
and to winter, early to ripen, plump of grain, and non- 
shattering. What a fine thing it would be to find even 
one plant free from rust in the midst of a rusted field ! 
It would mean a rnst-resistant plant. Its offspring would 



68 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

probably be also rust resistant. If you should ever find 
such a plant, be sure to save its seed, and plant it in a plat 
by itself. The next year again save seed from those plants 
least rusted. Possibly you can develop a rust-proof race 
of wheat! Keep your eyes open. 

In England the average yield of wheat is thirty bushels 
an acre, in the United States less than fifteen bushels ! In 
some states the yield is even less than nine bushels an acre. 
Let us select our seed with care, as the English people do, 
and then we can increase our yield. By careful seed selec- 
tion a plant breeder in Minnesota increased the yield of 
his wheat by one fourth. Think of what it would mean 
if twenty-five per cent were added to the world's supply of 
wheat at comparatively no cost, that is, the mere cost of 
careful seed selection. This would mean an addition to the 
world's income of about $500,000,000 each year. The 
United States would get about one fifth of this profit. 

It often happens that a single plant in the crop of corn, 
cotton, or wheat will be far superior to all others in the 
field. Such a plant deserves special care. Do not use it 
merely as a seed plant, but carefully plant its seeds apart 
and tend carefully. The following season select the best 
of its offspring as favorites again. Repeat this selection 
and culture for several years until you fix the variety. 
This is the way new varieties are originated from plants 
propagated by seed. ^ ^ 

In 1862, Mr. Abraham Fultz of Pennsylvania, while pass- 
ing through a field of bearded wheat, found three heads of 
beardless, or bald, wheat. These he sowed by themselves 
that year, and, as they turned out specially productive, 
he continued to sow this new variety. Soon he had 



THE PLANT 69 

enough seed to distribute over the country. It became 
known as the Fultz wheat, and is to-day one of the best 
varieties in the United States and in a number of foreign 
countries. Think how many bushels of wheat have been 
added to the world's annual supply by a few moments of 
intelligent observation and action on the part of this one 
man ! He saw his opportunity and used- it. How many 
similar opportunities do you think are lost ? How much 
does your state or country lose thereby ? 

EXERCISE 

Select one hundred seeds from a good and one hundred from a 
poor plant of the same variety. Sow them in two plats far enough 
apart to avoid cross pollination, yet try to have soil conditions about 
the same. Give each the same care and compare the yield. Try 
this with corn, cotton, wheat. Select seeds from the best plant in 
your good plat and from the poorest in your poor plat and repeat 
the experiment. This will require but a few feet of ground, and the 
good plat will pay for itself in yield and the poor plat will more than 
pay in the lesson that it will teach you. 

Read page 68, Bulletin 24, of the Division of Vegetable Physi- 
ology and Pathology of the Department of Agriculture or the Year 
Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1896 (pages 489-498), 
which you can get by writing to the Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D.C. Write to the Department of Agriculture for any 
bulletins that they can give you on plant breeding. 



SECTION XIX — SELECTING SEED CORN 

If a farmer would raise good crops, he must select good 
seed. Many of the farmer's disappointments in the quan- 
tity and quality of his crops, disappointments often attrib- 
uted to other causes, are the result of planting poor seed. 



70 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



Seeds not fully ri})cnccl, if Ihcy grow at all, produce imper- 
fect plants, (iood seeds, therefore, are the first things 
necessary for a good crop. The seed of only perfect 
l)lants should be saved. 

l^y judicious and })ersistent selection, made in the field 
bcfoie the crop is fully matured, corn can be improved to an 

ahnost unlimited extent in size and 
early maturity. Gather only ears 
from the most productive i)lants, and 
save only the largest and most perfect 
kernels. 

1 am sure that you have seen the 
common American blackbirds that 
usually migrate and feed in such large 
numbers. They all look alike in every 
u^ay. Now has it ever occurred to you 
to ask why all blackbirds are black ? 
The blackbirds are black simply 
because their parents are black. 

Now in the same way that the young 
l)lackbirds resemble their parents, corn 
Kic. 5:;. TiiK Kind ok ^i|| resemble its parent stock. How 

Ew\R TO Sl'.I.KCr f , r 1 

many ears or corn do you tuul on a 
stalk .^ One, two, sometimes three or four. You find two 
ears of corn on a stalk because it is the nature of that 
particular stalk to produce two ei^rs. In the same way the 
nature of some stalks is to produce but one ear, while some- 
times it is the nature of others to produce three. 

This resemblance of offspring to parent is known to 
scientists as Jicrcdity, or as "like producing like." 

We can take advantage of this law in improving our 




THE PLANT 



71 



corn crop. If a stalk can be made to produce two ears of 
corn just as large as the single ear that most stalks bear, 
we shall get just twice as much corn from a field in which 
the "two-eared" variety is planted. 

This fact ought to be very helpful to us next year when 
our fathers are planting corn. We should get them to 
plant seed secured only 
from stalks that pro- 
duced the most corn. 
If we follow this plan 
year by year, each acre 
of land will be made to 
produce more kernels 
and hence a larger crop 
of corn, and yet no more 
work will be required to 
raise the crop. 

In addition to enlarg- 
ing the yield of corn, 
you can ])y proper selec- 
tion of the best and most 
productive plants in the 
field grow a new variety 
of seed corn. To do this 
you need only take the 
largest and most perfect kernels from stalks bearing two 
ears ; plant these, and at the next harvest again save the 
best kernels from stalks bearing two or more ears. If 
you keep up this practice with great care for several 
years, you will get a vigorous, fruitful variety that will 
command a high price for seed. 




Vic. 54. 



SKLKCT SkKI) from S'lAl.K 

ON Left 



n 



ACKICULIUKI'. I'OK i;i;( 1 1 N N i:i<s 



KXI'KRIMKNT 

ICvcry school boy aiul ;j;iil ( .in makr this experiment at leisure. 
I''rom your own (ield ;;i-t two eais of corn, one from a stalk hear- 
ing only one car and the othei' from a stalk hearing two well-grown 
cars. 

riant the grains from one ear in one |)lat, and the grains fiom 
the odicr in a pl.il ol ((jiLd size. Use lor hodi the same soil and the 




I'li;. c;c,. I M i'U()\ I'M I'.Nr Ol' Cokn i!\ Si ircrioN 

Ilooiu" ('(iiiiit\ wliilc roni on lflt,.m(l mi^iii.il (\|n' liom wliirli it was (Icvcloiicd 
by si'lri tioii on li^lil. I'"i(>in oiiniii.il liiiiiislicd l)\ llu' I'liitt'd .St.ilcs |)(-|),Mt 

llU'llt ot AkiIi llltlMf 



same fertilizer. Cultivati' both plats in the same way. When the 
crop is ready to haixcst, hnsk the corn, count the cars, and weigh 
the ( orn. Then write .i short essay on the way )ou did the work 
and on \()ur results. (let Nonr leaeher to read and coricHt your 
writing, and then send \<)ni essa\- to your home i)apei" and to some 
agricultural paper. 



THE PLANT 



73 



SECTION XX- \vi':i':i)s 



Have you ever noticed lliiil. some weeds are killed by 
one partieular method, while this same method may entirely 
fail with (Aher kinds ol weeds? 11 we wish to free our 
fields of weeds with the greatest 
ease, we must knrnv the nature 
of eaeh kind of weed and then 
attaek it in the way that we can 
most readily destrtjy it. 

The ordinary ])igweed {l'\^. 56) 
differs from many other weeds in 
that it lives for only one year. 
When winter comes, it must die. 
Each plant, however, bears a ^reat 
number of seeds. If we can pre- 
vent the i)lant from nuaking seed 
in its first year, there will not ])e 
many seeds to come up the next 
season. In fact, only those seeds 
that were too deei)ly ])uri(*d in 
the soil to (fjme uj) the jjrevicnis 
spring will be left, and of these 
two-year-old seeds many will 
not germinate. J during the 
next season some old seeds wil 
the number will be very much diminished. If care be 
exercised to prevent the jjigweed frf>m se(,'fling again, 
and the same watchiulness be continu(Ml for a few 
seasons, the liigweed will be almost entirely driven Ironi 
our fields. 




Vic. 56. I'i(;vvKKi) 
j)roduce plants, but 



74 



AC.RTCULTUKK FOR liiailNNKKS 



A ])l;inl like tlic i)i^"vvL'C(l, wliicli lives only one year, is 
allied an (Uinuir/, and is one ol the easiest of weeds to 
destroy. Mustard, i)lanlain, ehess, dodder, coeklc, crab 
grass, and Jimson weed are a lew ol our most disagree- 

r'.^Oi.rs, ov^a. '-^^^^^^ animal weeds. 

,,>qii^>i%Pv|fc^ The very best t ime 

^.Jr^y&i^m^ to kill any weed is 

therefore the ground 
in early sjoring should 
be eonstantly stirred 
in order to kill the 
)'ouni;' weeds before 
they grow to be 
strong and hardy. 

Ihe wild carrot 
d i I f e r s fro m an 
aniuud, for il li\es 
1 h rough out o n e 
whole }'ear without 
producing seeds. 
Allfr^^ During its first year 
it accumulates a 
(luantity of nourish- 
ment in the root, then restsvover winter, and in the lol- 
lowing sumnuM- it uses this nourishment rapidly in the 
l)ro(luction of flowers and seeds. 'I'hen the ])lant dies, 
riant s that live through two seasons in this way are 
called biniiiidls. Weeds of this kind may be destroyed 
by cutiino- the roots below the Icdvcs with a grubbing hoe 
or sj^ud. A spud may be described as a chisel on a long 




Wii.ii Car KOI' 



'VllK I'l.ANT 



75 



handle (sec Vi^. 58). If biennials arc not cut low enough., 
they will branch out anew and make many seeds. The 
most common biennials are the « 

thistle, moth mullein, wild car- c^^-»J\ 
rot, wild parsnip, and burdock. 



A 



Fig. 5<S. A Spi;i) 







Vu'.. 



59- 



Hound's Tunguk 



A third grmip of weeds consists of those that live for 
more than two years. These weeds are usually most diffi- 
cult to kill. They propagate by means of running root- 
stocks as well as by seeds. Hants that live more than 
two seasons are known di^ perennials and include, for exam- 
ple, many grasses, dock, Canada thistle, poison ivy, passion 
flower, horse nettle, etc. I'here are many methfKls of 



1^ 



A(;kicijlture for beginners 



destroying perennial weeds. They may be dug entirely 
out and removed. Sometimes in small areas they may be 
killed by crude sulphuric acid or may be starved by cover- 
in <r them with boards or a straw stack or in some other 
convenient way. A method that is very effective is to 
smother the weeds by a dense growth of some other plant, 
for cxami)le, cowpeas or buckwheat. Cowpeas are to be 

preferred, since they 
also enrich the soil by 
the nitrogen that the 
root tubercles gather. 
Weeds do injury in 
numerous ways: they 
shade the crop, steal 
its nourishment, and 
waste its moisture. 
Perhaps their only 
service is to make lazy 
people till their crops. 



EXERCISE 

You should learn to 
know hy name the twenty 
worst weeds of your vicin- 
ity and to recognize their 
' seeds. If there are any 
weeds you are not ahlc to recognize, send a samplq to your State 
Experiment Station. Make a collection, properly labeled, of weeds 
and weed seeds for your school. 

Procure from the Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 28 
on " Weeds and How to Kill Them." 




Fig. 60. Canada Thisti.k 



THE PLANT 77 

SECTION XXI — SEED PURITY AND VITALITY 

Seeds produce plants. The difference between a large 
and a small yield may depend upon the kind of plants we 
raise, and the kind of plant in turn is dependent upon the 
seeds that we sow. 

Two considerations are important in the selection of 
seeds, — namely, purity and vitality. Seeds should be 
pure ; that is, when sown they should i)r(jduce no other 
plant than the one that we wish to raise. They should 
be able to grow. The ability of a seed to grow is termed 
its vitality. Good seed should be nearly or quite pure 
and should possess high vitality. The vitality of seeds is 
expressed in per cent ; for example, if 97 seeds out of 100 
germinate, or sprout, the vitality is said to be 97. The 
older the seed the less is its vitality, except in a few rare 
instances in which seeds cannot germinate under two or 
three years. 

Cucumber seeds may show 90 per cent vitality when 
they are one year old; 75 per cent when two years old, 
and 70 per cent when three years old, — the per cent of 
vitality diminishing with increase of years. The average 
length of life of seeds of cultivated plants is short : for 
example, the tomato lives four years ; corn, two years ; 
onion, two years ; radish, five years. The cucumber seed 
may retain life after ten years, though even with it, the 
older the seed the poorer. 

It is important when buying seeds of dealers to test these 
two properties of seeds, — purity and vitality. Unscrupu- 
lous dealers often sell old seeds, although they know that 
seeds decrease in value with age. Sometimes, however, to 



78 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

cloak dishonesty they mix some new seeds with the old, 
or bleach old and yellow seeds in order to make them 
resemble fresh, new seed. 

It is important, therefore, that all seeds bought of dealers 
should be thoroughly examined and tested ; for if seeds do 
not grow, we not only pay for that which is useless, but we 
are also in great danger of i)roducing so few plants in our 
field that we shall not get full use of the land, and may 
thus suffer a more serious loss than merely paying for a 
few dead seeds. 

To test the vitality of seeds, plant one hundred seeds 
in a pot of earth or in damp sand, or place between moist 
pieces of flannel, and take care to keep them moist and 
warm. Count those that germinate and thus determine 
the percentage of vitality. Germinating between flannel is 
much quicker than planting in earth. Care should be used 
to keep mice away from germinating seeds. (See Fig. 6i.) 




B 

A S I'. 1 '. I ) CI I-: R M 1 N AT(. ) K 

Consisting of two soup plates, ^Qme sand, and a piece of cloth 

Sometimes the appearance of a package will indicate 
whether the seed has boon kept in stock a long time. 
It is, however, much more difficult to find out whether the 
seeds are pure. You can of course easily distinguish seeds 
that differ much from the seeds you wish to plant, but often 



THE PLANT 



79 



certain weed seeds are so nearly like certain crop seeds 
that the weed seeds are not easily recognized by the eye. 
Thus, for example, the dodder or ** love vine," which so 
often ruins the clover 
crop, has seeds closely 
resembling clover 
seeds. The chess, or 
cheat, has seeds so 
nearly like oats that 
only a close observer 
can tell them apart. 
However, if you watch 
the seeds that you buy 
and study the appear- 
ance of crop seeds, 
you may become very 
expert in recognizing 
seeds that have no 
place in your planting. 

I know of one 
instance where a seed 
dealer intentionally 
allowed an impurity of 
30 per cent to remain in the crop seeds, and this impurity 
was mainly of weed seeds. There were 450,000 of one 
kind and 288,000 of another in each pound of seed. 
Think of planting weeds at that rate ! Sometimes three 
fourths of the seeds you buy are weed seeds. 

In purchasing seeds the only safe plan is to buy of 
dealers whose reputation can be relied upon. 



i 
w 

2 



4 



Fig. 62 



Tube I represents one pound of redtop grass as 
bought; Tube 2, amount of pure redtop grass 
seeds in Tube i ; Tube 3, amount of chaff and 
dirt in Tube i ; Tube 4, amount of weed seeds 
in Tube i ; Tulje 5, amount of total waste in 
Tube I ; Tube 6, amount of pure germinable 
seed in Tube i 



8o AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



EXERCISE 

Examine seeds both for vitality and purity. Write for Farmers' 
Bulletins on both these subjects. What would be the loss to a 
farmer who planted a ten-acre clover field with seeds that were 
eighty per cent bad ? Can you recognize the seeds of the principal 
cultivated plants? Germinate some beet seeds. What per cent 
comes up? Can you explain? Collect for your school as many 
kinds of wild and cultivated seeds as vou can. 




Fig. 63. A Young Fruit Grower 
From Hodge's " Nature Study and Life,'' Ginn & Company 



8i 



CHAPTER IV 
HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 

Let each pupil grow an apple tree this year and attempt 
to make it the best in his neighborhood. In your attempt 
suppose you try the following plan. In the fall take the 
seed of an apple — a crab is good — and keep it in a cool 
place during the winter. The simplest way to do this is 
to bury it in damp sand. In the spring plant it in a rich, 
loose soil. 

Great care must be taken of the young shoot as soon 
as it appears above the ground. You want to make it 
grow as tall and as straight as possible during this first 
year of its life ; hence you should give it rich soil and 
protect it from animals. Before the ground freezes in the 
fall take up your young tree with the soil that was around 
it and keep it all winter in a cool, damp place. 

Now it will not do when spring comes to set out your 
carefully tended tree, for an apple tree from seed will not 
be a tree like its parent, but will tend to resemble a more 
distant ancestor. The (iistant ancestor that the young 
apple tree is most likely to^fake after is the wild apple, 
which is small, sour, and otherwise far inferior to the 
fruit we wish to grow. It makes little difference, there- 
fore, what kind of apple seed we plant, since in any event 
we have no assurance that the tree grown from it will bear 
a fruit worth having unless we force it to do so. 

82 



HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 



83 



SECTION XXII — GRAFTING 



By a process known as grafting you can force your 
tree to produce whatever variety of apple you desire. Many 
people raise fruit trees directly from seed without graft- 
ing. They thus often produce really worthless trees. By 
grafting they would make sure not only of having good 
trees rather than poor ones but also of having the par- 
ticular kind of fruit that they 
wish; hence you must now graft 
your tree. 

First you must decide what 
variety of apple you w^ant to grow 
on your tree. The Magnum 
Bonum is a great favorite as a 
fall apple. The Winesap is a 
good winter apple, while the Red 
Astrachan is a profitable early 
apple, especially in the lowland 
of the coast region. The North- 
ern Spy, ^sop, and Spitzenberg 
are also admirable species. Pos- 
sibly some other apple that you 
know may suit your taste and needs better. 

If you have decided to raise an ^sop or a Magnum 
Bonum or a Winesap, you must now cut a twig from the 
tree of your choice and graft it upon the little tree that 
you have raised. Choose a twig that is about the thick- 
ness of your young tree at the point where you wish to 
graft. Be careful to take your shoot from a vigorous, 
healthy part of the tree. 




Fig. 64. Tongue Grafting 



84 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



There are many ways in which you may join your chosen 

shoot or twig upon your young tree, but perhaps the best 

one for you to use is known as tongue 
grafting. This is ilkistrated in Fig. 64. 
The upper part, b^ which is the shoot 
or twig that you cut from the tree, is 
known as the scion ; the lower part, a^ 
which is your original tree, is called 
the stock. 

Cut your scion and stock as shown 
in Fig. 64. Join the cut end of the 
scion to the cut end of the stock. 
When you join them,notice that under 
the bark of each there is a thin layer 
of soft, juicy tissue. This is called the 
cambium. To make 
a successful graft, 
the cambium in the 

scion must exactly join the cambium in 

the stock. Be careful, then, to see that 

cambium meets cambium. You now see 

why grafting can be more successfully 

done if you select a scion and stock of 

nearly the same size. 

After fitting the parts closely together, 

bind them with cotton yarn (see Fig- 65) 

that has been coated with grafting wax. 

This wax is made of equal parts of tal- 
low, beeswax, and linseed oil. Smear the wax thoroughly 

over the whole joint, and make sure that it is completely 

air tight. 



Fig. 65 
A Completed Graft 

Showing scion and stock 
from which it was made 




Fig. 66 

To make a root graft cut 
along the slanting line 



HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 



85 



The best time to make this graft is 
when scion and stock are dormant, that 
is, when not in leaf. During the winter, 
say in February, is the best time to 
graft your tree. Now set your grafted 
tree away again in damp sand until 
spring; then plant it in loose, rich soil. 

Since all parts growing above the graft 
will be of the same kind as the scion, 
while all branches below it will be like 
the stock, it is well to graft low on the 
stock, even upon the root itself. The 
slanting double line in Fig. 66 shows the 
proper place to cut off for such grafting. 

You may sometime, if you like, make 
the interesting and valuable experiment of grafting scions 
from various kinds of apple trees upon the branches of one 
stock. In this way you can secure a tree bearing a number 
of kinds of fruit. You may thus raise the Bonum, Red 
Astrachan, Winesap, and as many other varieties of apples 



Fig. 67, A Com- 
pleted Root Graft 




Fig. 68. Cleft Grafting 




86 



AC.KU'ULTURI': FOR RKC^INNERS 



as you wish, iijx)!! one tree. For 
this cxiKM"iincnt, however, )'ou will 
find it l)ettei- to resort to cleft gnuft- 
iuii\ which is illustrated in V'\\i. 68. 

LiilluM l>iirl);nd<, the originator of 
the Riirhank potato, in atteni])tin<;" 
to (hid a \aiiety ol apple suitable to 
the California eliniate. _i;"ralt(.xl more 
than (i\'e huiuhwl kinds of a[)ple 
seions on one tiee, so that he mii;ht 
wati^h them side by side and deter- 
mine whi(."h kind was best suited to 
conditions in that state. 

SlX'i'lON Will —BUDDING 

^'•^••^^'^- ""^vTocPTA ,,-^ instead of an apple tree, you 

were raising" a plum or a peaeh, 
)()u would prohabh in the i^hue (^{ i;iaftini; use buddini;-. 
Ocwisionally buddiui; is also canployetl for apples, t)ears, 






l'"u:. TO. TiiK Stki's in Hrm>iNi; 



HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 



87 



^s 



.■^/ 



cherries, oranges, and lemons. The process is as follows. 

A single bud is cut from the scion and is then inserted 
under the bark of a one-year-old peach 
seedling, so that the cambium of the bud 
and stock may grow together. 

Cut scions of the kind of fruit tree you 
desire from a one-year-old twig of the same 
variety. Wra}) them in a clean, moist 
cloth until you are ready to use them. 
Just before using cut the bud from the 
scion, as shown in Fig. 69. This bud is 
now ready to be inserted on the north side 
of the stock, just two or three inches above 
the ground. The north side is selected to 
Fig. 71 avoid the sun. Now, as shown at a in 

Sloping line siiows V\^. JO, make a cross and an up-and-down 

where to cut tree ... ^ , 

incision, or cut, on the 
stock ; pull the bark back carefully, as 
shown in />; insert the bud (\ as sliown 
in I)\ then fold the bark back, and wrap 
with yarn or raffia, as shown in A\ As 
soon as the bud and branches have united, 
remove the wrapping to prevent its cut- 
ting the bark, and cut the tree back very 
close to the bud, as in Fig. 71, so as to 
force nourishment into the inserted bud. 
Budding is done in the field without 
disturbing the tree as it stands in llie Lines siiow where to 
ground. The best time to do this is *"'" 

during the summer or fall months, wIumi the bark is 
loose enough to allow the buds to l)e easily inserted. 




88 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



Trees may be budded or grafted upon one another only 
when they are nearly related. Thus the apple, crab apple, 
hawthorn, and quince are all related closely enough to graft 

or bud upon one another ; the 
pear grows upon some haw- 
thorns, but not well upon the 
apple; some chestnuts will 
unite with some kinds of oaks. 

SECTION XXIV — PLANTING 
AND PRUNING 

The apple tree that you 
grafted should be set out in 
the spring. Dig a hole three 
or four feet in diameter where 
you wish your tree to grow. 

Fig. 73 
Present shape comes from pruning 

Place the tree in the hole, using 
every care to preserve all the fine 
roots. Spread the roots out fully, 
water them, and pack fine, rich 
soil firmly about them. Place 
stakes about the young tree to 
protect it from injury. If the 
spot selected is in a windy loca- 
tion, incline your tree slightly toward the prevailing wind. 
You must prune your tree as it grows. The object of 





Fig. 74 



HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 



89 



pruning is to give the tree proper shape and to promote 
fruit bearing. If the bud at the end of the main shoot 
grow, you will have a tall, cone-shaped tree. If, however, 
the end of the young tree be cut or " headed back " to 
the lines in Fig. yz, the buds below this point will be 
forced to grow, and make a tree like that shown in Fig. 73. 
The proper height of heading for different fruits varies. 
For the apple tree a height of two or three feet is best. 




.5;6i^^^*r/:'^ 



Fig. 75 
Unthinned 




.^^,j,j^(^^#.;l 



Fig. 76 
Properly thinned 



Cutting an end bud of a shoot or branch always sends 
the nourishment and growth into the side buds. Trim- 
ming or pinching off the side buds throws the growth into 
the end bud. You can therefore cause your tree to take 
almost any shape you desire. The difference between the 
trees shown in Figs. 73 and 74 is entirely the result of 
pruning. Fig. 74 illustrates in general a correctly shaped 
tree. It is evenly balanced, admits light freely, and yet has 
enough foliage to prevent sun scald. Figs. 75 and y6 show 
the effect of judiciously thinning the branches. 



90 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



The best time to prune is either in the winter or before 
the buds start in the spring. Winter pruning tends to 
favor wood production, while summer pruning lessens wood 
production and induces fruitage. 

Each particular kind of fruit 
requires special pruning; for 
example, the peach should be 
made t (j assume the shape 




•hjjiijH^m 



'/)a»^V\v 



^tll^f'O 



Fig. 77. The Customary Way 

OF PRUNING A PeACH\ 






Fig. 78. Two Year- 
Old Tree 
Cut off heel, // 



illustrated in Fig. yy. This is done by successive trim- 
mings, following the plan illustrated in Figs„ 71, yS, 79. 
You will gain several advantages from these trimmings. 
First, nourishment will be forced into the peach bud that 
you set on your stock. This will secure a vigorous growth of 
the scion. A second trimming will take off the ''heel,"//, 



HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 



91 



^ 



) 



■ III 

( 

Fig. 79. Three 
Year Old Tree 

CUT BACK 



close to the tree, and thus prevent decay at this point. 

One year after budding you should reduce the tree to a 

"whip," as in Fig. 79, by trimming at the dotted line in 
Fig. yS. This estabUshes the "head" of 
your tree, which in the case of the peach 
should be very low, — that is, about sixteen 
inches from the ground, — in order that a 
low foliage may lessen the danger of sun 
scald to the main trunk. 

In pruning never leave a stump such 
as is shown in Fig. y8, h. Such a stump 
having no source of nourishment will be 
sure to heal very slowly with great danger 
of decay. If this heel is cleanly cut on the 
line ch (Fig. "]%), the wound will heal 

rapidly and with little danger of decay. 

Leaving such a stump 

endangers the soundness 

of the whole tree. Fig. 80 

shows the results of good 

and poor pruning on a large 

tree. When large limbs are 

removed, it is best to paint 

the cut surface to prevent 

the access of rot -causing 

fungi. 

Pruning that leaves large 

limbs branching, as in Fig. 

74, <7, is not to be recom- 
mended, since the limbs when loaded with fruit or when 

beaten by heavy winds are liable to break. At the point 




Fig. 80 

Refuses to heal I leals promptly 



92 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

of breakage, decay is apt to set in. The entrance of decay 
fungi through some such wound, or even through a very 
tiny crevice at such a crotch, is the beginning of the end 
of many a fruitful tree. 

Sometimes a tree will go too much to wood and too little 
to fruit. This often happens in rich soil, and may be reme- 
died by another kind of pruning known as root pruning. 
This consists in cutting off a few of the roots in order to 
limit the food supply of the plant. You should learn more 
about root pruning, however, before you attempt it. 

A recent writer asks and answers the following questions : 

" How is a peach tree made? In 1898 a pit or seed is saved. In 
the spring of 1899 it is planted. The young tree comes up quickly. 
In August, 1899, the little stock has one bud — of the desired variety 
— inserted near the ground. In the spring of 1900 the stock is sev- 
ered just above the bud, the bud throws out a shoot which grows 
to a height of four or six feet, and in the fall of 1900 the tree is 
sold. It is known as a year-old tree, but the root is two years old. 

" How is an apple tree made? The seed is saved in 1898, planted 
in 1899. The seedlings do not grow so rapidly as those of the peach. 
At the end of 1899 they are taken up and sorted, and in the spring 
of 1900 they are planted. In July or August, 1900, they are budded. 
In the spring of 1901 the stock is cut off above the bud, and the 
bud shoot grows three or four feet. In 1902 the shoot branches, or 
the top begins to form ; and in the fall of 1902 the tree may be sold 
as a two-year old, although most persons prefer to buy it in 1903 as a 
three-year old. In some parts of the country, particularly in the 
West, the little seedling is grafted in the winter of 1899-1900, in a 
grafting room ; and the young grafts are set in the nursery row in the 
spring of 1900, to complete their growth." 



HOW TO RAISE A FRUIT TREE 



93 



EXERCISE 

Do you know any trees in your neighborhood that bear both 
wild and budded or grafted fruit ? What are the chief varieties of 
apples grown in your neighborhood? grapes? currants? plums? 
cherries? figs? What is a good apple tree worth? Is there any 
land near by that could support a tree that is not now doing so? 
Examine several orchards and see whether the trees have proper 
shape. Do you see any evidence of poor pruning? Do you find 




Fig. 8i. Ready to bear 



any "heels"? Can you see any place where "heels" have resulted 
in rotten or hollow trees? How could you have prevented this? 
Has the removal of branches ever resulted in serious decay? How 
is this to be prevented? 

If your home is not now well stocked with all the principal kinds 
of fruit, do you not want to propagate and attend to some of each 
kind? You will be surprised to find how quickly they will bear and 
how soon you will be eating fruit from your own planting. I assure 
you that growing your own trees will make you feel like a real 
proprietor. 



ciiArri':R v 

THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 

si'xrioN \xv 'riii<: c^ausI': and natukI': ok 
n,AN'i' i)isi<:asI': 

I'lanls have diseases just as animals do; not tlie same 
disease's, lo be sure, l)ul jusl as serious loi" the plant. 
Some ol lliem aie so danj^erous that the\' kill the plant; 
others partl\' or wholh' destro\' its useluluess or its beauty. 
Some chseases an* lound oltenest on \er\ \ouni;- i)lants, 
others i)re\ on the middle-ai;-ed tree, while still others 
attack merely the fruit. Whenever a larmer or fruit 
L;i"o\ver has chsease amouL; his plants, he ol eourse loses 
nnieh piolit. 

N'ou ha\c' all seen lotten fiuit. This is diseased fruit. 
I'^ruit rot is a i)lant ihsease. JMuit rot eosts tarmers mil- 
lions of dollars annualK. (hie fruit grower lost si.xty car 
loads of i)eaehes in one )ear throui;h rot which could have 
been largely luexented if h^' had known how. 

Many of the )c'llowish or cli^seolored spots on leaxes are 
the lesult o{ disease, as is also the^snuit of wheat, corn, and 
oats, the blight o{ the pear, and the wilt o\' c\)tton. Many 
t)f these diseases aie contagious, or, ;is wctitten hear said of 
measles, "catching." This is 1 1 ue, among other.s, of the 
apple anil peach rot. A heahh\' appU^ can "catch" this 
disease ivom a sick apple. \'ou often see e\ideneo t)f 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



95 



this in the apple bin. So, too, many of the diseases found 
in the field or <,^arden are contagious. 

Sometimes, when the skin of a rotten apple has been 
broken, you will find in the broken i)lace a blue mold. It 
was the mold that caused the apple to decay. This mold 
is a living plant ; very small, to be sure, but nevertheless 
a plant. Let us learn a little about molds, in order that 
we may better understand 
our apple and potato rots as 
well as other plant diseases. 

If you cut a lemon and 
let it stand for a day or two, 
there will probably appear ^^P^ 
a blue mold 
like that you 
have seen on 
llie surface of 
canned fruit. 
Bread also 
sometimes 
has this blue 
mold ; at other 
times it has a black mold, and again a pink or yellow mold. 

These and all other molds are living plants. Instead of 
seeds they produce many very small bodies that serve the 
purpose of seeds and reproduce the mold. These are called 
spoi'cs. Fig. 82 shows how they are borne on the jxirent 
plant. 

It is also of great importance to decide whether by keep- 
ing the spores away we may prevent mold. Possibly this 
experiment will help us. Moisten a piece of bread, then 





Fig. S2. Tangi.ki) Tiiki^ads oI'' Hmik Moi.ij 
The single stalk on left shows how spores are borne 



96 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 




C^^ 



Fig. 83. Magnified Rose Mildew 



dip a match or a pin into the blue mold on a lemon, and 

draw the match across the moist bread. You will thus 

plant the spores in a row ; 
they are so small that 
perhaps you may not see 
any of them. Place the 
bread in a damp place 
for a few days and watch 
it. Does the mold grow 
where you planted it ? 
Does it grow elsewhere .'' 
This experiment should 
prove to you that molds 
are living things and can 

be planted. If you find spots elsewhere, you must remember 

that these spores are very small and light and were probably 

blown about when 

you made your sow- 
ing. When you 

touch the moldy 

portion of a dry. 

lemon, you see a 

cloud of dust rise. 

This dust is made 

of millions of 

spores. 

If you plant 

many other kinds 

of mold, you will 

find that the molds ''come true" to the kind that is 

planted ; that like produces like even among molds. 




Fig. 84. A Mildewed Rose 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



97 



You can also prove that mold is caused only by other 
mold. To do this, put some wet bread in a wide-mouthed 
bottle and plug the opening with cotton. Kill all the 
spores that may be in this bottle by steaming one hour 




Fig. 85. A Highly Magnified Section of Diseased Pear Leaf 
Showing how spores are borne 

in the cooking steamer. This bread will not mold until 
you allow live mold from the outside to enter. If, how- 
ever, at any time you open the bottle and allow spores 
to enter, or if you plant spores therein, and if there be 
moisture enough, mold will immediately set in. 



98 AGRICULTURE P^OR BEGINNERS 

The little plants which make up these molds are called 
fungi. Some fungi are quite large, as, for example, the 
toadstools, puffballs, and Devil's snuff-box ; others very 
small, as the molds ; and others even smaller than the 
molds. Fungi never have the green color of ordinary 
plants, always reproduce by spores, and feed on living 
matter or matter that was once alive. Puffballs, for 
example, are found on rotting wood or dead twigs or 
roots. Some fungi grow on living plants, and these 
produce plant disease by taking their nourishment from 
the plant which they grow upon; the latter plant is then 
called the host. 

The same blue mold that grows on bread often attacks 
apples that have been slightly bruised; it cannot pierce 
healthy apple skin. You can plant the mold in the bruised 
apple, just as you did on bread, and watch its rapid spread 
through the apple. You learn from this the need of pre- 
venting bruised or decayed apples from coming in contact 
with healthy fruit. 

Just as this fungus lives in the apple or bread, so other 
varieties live on leaves, bark, etc. Fig. 83 represents the 
surface of a mildewed rose leaf very greatly magnified. 
This mildew is a fungus. You can see its creeping stems, 
its upright stalk, and numerous spores ready to fall off and 
spread the disease with the firs1;Jbreath of wind. You must 
remember that this figure is gredtly magnified, and that 
the whole portion shown in the figure is only about one 
tenth of an inch across. Fig. 84 shows the general appear- 
ance of a twig affected by this disease. 

This mildew on the rose or on any plant so affected may 
be killed by spraying the leaves with a solution of liver of 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 99 

sulphur ; to make this solution, use one ounce of the liver 
of sulphur to two gallons of water. 

The fungus that causes the pear leaf spots has its 
spores in little pits (Fig. 85). The spores of some fungi 
also grow on stalks, as in Fig. S6. This figure repre- 
sents an enlarged view of the pear scab, which causes so 
much destruction. 

You see, then, that fungi are living plants that grow 
at the expense of other plants and cause disease. Now 






Fig. 86 
The spores of the pear scab fungus are borne on stalks 

if you can cover the leaf with a poison that will kill the 
spore when it comes, you can prevent the disease. One 
such poison is the Bordeaux Mixture (pronounced bor-do^), 
which has proved of great value to farmers. 

Since the fungus in most cases lives within the leaves, 
the poison on the outside does no good after the fungus is 
established. The treatment can be used only to prevent 
attack, not to cure, except in the case of a few mildews that 
live upon the outside of the leaf, as does the rose mildew. 



L.O 



fC. 



lOO AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



EXERCISE 

Why do things mold more readily in damp places? Do you now 
understand why fruit is heated before it is canned? Try to grow 
several kinds of mold. Do you know many edible fungi ? 

Transfer disease from a rotten apple to a healthy one and note the 
rapidity of decay. How many really healthy leaves can you find on a 
strawberry plant? Do you find any spots with reddish borders and 
white centers? Do you know that this is a serious disease of the 
strawberry ? What damage does fruit mold do to peaches, plums, 
or strawberries ? 

Write to your Experiment Station for Bulletins on plant diseases 
and methods for making and using the Bordeaux Mixture. 



SECTION XXVI — YEAST AND BACTERIA 

Can you imagine a plant so small that it would take one 
hundred plants lying side by side to equal the thickness 
of a sheet of writing paper ? There are plants that are 
so small. Moreover, these same plants are of very great 
importance to man in two ways. Some of them do him 
great injury, while others aid him very much. 

You will recognize their importance when I tell you that 
certain of them in their habits of life cause great change 
in the substances that they live in. For example, when 
living in a sugary substanfe^, they change the sugar into 
a gas and an alcohol. Do you remember the bright bul> 
bles of gas you have seen rising in sweet cider or in wine 
as it soured ? These bubbles are caused by one of these 
small plants, the yeast plant. As the yeast plant grows 
in the sweet fruit juice, alcohol is made and a gas is given 
off at the same time, and this gas makes the bubbles. 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



lOI 



Later, other kinds of plants equally small will grow and 
change the alcohol into an acid, which you will recognize 
by its sour taste and peculiar odor. Thus vinegar is made 
by the action of two different kinds of little living plants 
in the cider. That these are living beings you can prove 
by heating the cider and keeping it tightly sealed so that 
nothing can enter the can. You will find that, the living 
germs being killed by the heat, the cider will not ferment 
or sour as it did before. The germs could of course be 
killed by poisons, but then 
the cider would be unfit for 
use. It is also this same 
little yeast plant that causes 
bread to rise. 

When you see any decay- 
ing matter, you may know 
that in it minute plants much 
like the yeast plant are at 
work. Since decay is due 
to them, we take advantage 
of the fact that they cannot grow in strong brine or smoke, 
and thus prepare meat for keeping by salting it or by 
smoking it or by both of these methods. 

You see that some of the yeast plants and bacteria, as 
many of these forms are called, are very friendly to us, 
while others do us great harm. 

Some bacteria grow within the body of man and other 
animals or in plants. When they do so, they may pro- 
duce disease. Typhoid fever, diphtheria, consumption, 
and many other serious diseases are caused by bacteria. 
Fig. 88, e, shows the bacterium that causes typhoid fever. 




Fi(i. (S7. Yeast Plants 

A, a single plant ; /?, group of two 
budding cells 



I02 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

In the picture, it is of course very <^reatly magnified. In 
reality these bacteria are so small that about twenty-five 
thousand of them side by side would extend only one inch. 
Such small beings produce such great effects by their very 
rapid multiplication, and ^ by giving off very power- 
ful i")()isons. 

^'V ^ flU'^^xd "^ i^^ Bacteria are so small 

that they are readily borne 
on the dust particles of 
the air and are often taken 




h c d c IS^^ / / 
Fu;. 8S. b\)RMs ok Baci'kria 




., grippe ; I, bubonic phguo ; . dipbtberia ; j^^^^ ^j^^ ^^. thrOUgh thc 

d^ tuljerciilosis ; r, typlioul lever ■' ° 

breath or through water 
or milk. You can see how careful you should be and 
what i)recaution you should take to prevent germs from 
getting into the air or into water or milk when there is 
disease about your home. You should heed carefully all 
instructions of youi- ])hysician on this point, so that you 
may not spread disease. 

^SECTION XXVII — PREVENTION OF PLANT DISEASES 

In the last two sections you have learned something of 
the nature of those fungi and bacteria that cause disease 
in animals and plants. Now let us see how we can use 
this knowledge to lessen theMiseases of our crops. I^^u'mers 
lose through plant diseases very much that could be saved 
by pr()i)er precaution. 

First, you must remember that every diseased fruit, 
twig, or leaf bears millions of si){)rcs. These must be 
destroyed by burning. They must not be allowed to lie 
about and spread the disease in the spring. See that 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 103 

decayed fruit in the bin or on the trees is destroyed in 
the same manner. Never throw such decayed fruit into 
the garden or orchard, as it may cause disease the follow- 
ing year. 

Second, you can often kill spores on seeds before they are 
planted, and thus prevent the development of the fungus. 
(See pages 107-109). 

Third, often the foliage of the plant can be sprayed with 
a poison that will prevent the germination of the spores 
(see pages 1 1 i-i i 5). 

Fourth, some varieties of plants resist disease much 
more stoutly than others. We may often select the 
resistant form to great advantage (see Fig. 89). 

Fifth, after big limbs are pruned off, decay often sets in 
at the wound. This decay may be prevented by coating 
the cut surface with paint, tar, or some other substance 
that will not allow spores to enter the wounded place or 
to germinate there. Many a tree could be saved by this 
precaution. 

Sixth, it frequently happens that the spore or fungus 
remains in the soil. This is true in the cotton wilt, and the 
remedy is to so rotate crops that the diseased land is not used 
again for this crop until the spores or fungi have died. 

SECTION XXVIII— SOME SPECIAL PLANT DISEASES 

Fire Blight of the Pear and Apple. You have perhaps 
heard your father speak of 'the *'fire blight" of the pear 
and apple trees. This is one of the most injurious and 
most widely known of fruit diseases. Do you want to 
know the cause of this disease and how to prevent it ? 



I04 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

First, how will you recognize this disease? If the dis- 
eased bough at which you are looking has true fire blight, 
you will see a blackened twig with withered, blackened 
leaves. During winter the leaves do not fall from blighted 
twigs as they do from healthy ones. The leaves wither 
because of the diseased twig, not because they are them- 
selves diseased. Only rarely does the blight really enter 
the leaf. Sometimes a sharp line separates the blighted 
from the healthy part of the twig. 

The fire blight is caused by bacteria, of which you have 
read in another section. These bacteria grow in the juicy 
part of the stem between the wood and the bark. This 
tender, fresh layer is called the cambium^ and is the part that 
breaks away and allows you to slip the bark off when you 
make your bark whistle in the spring. The growth of 
new wood takes place in the cambium, and this part of 
the twig is therefore full of nourishment. If this nourish- 
ment is stolen, the plant of course soon suffers. 

The bacteria causing this disease are readily carried 
from flower to flower and from twig to twig by insects, and 
to keep all bacteria away from your trees you must see to 
it that all the trees in the neighborhood of your orchard 
are kept free from mischievous bacterial enemies. If they 
exist in near-by trees, insects will carry them to your 
orchard. You must therefore. watch all the relatives of the 
pear; namely, the apple, hawthorn, crab, quince, and moun- 
tain ash, for any of these trees may harbor the germs. 

When any tree shows blight, every diseased twig on it 
must be cut off and burned in order to kill the germs, and 
you must cut low enough on the twig to get all the bac- 
teria. It is best to cut a foot below the blackened portion. 




I05 



io6 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



If by chance your knife should cut into wood containing 
the hving germs, and then you should cut into healthy 
wood with the same knife, you yourself would spread the 
disease. It is therefore best after each cutting to dip your 
knife into a solution of carbolic acid. This will kill all 
bacteria clinging to the knife blade. After the leaves fall 
in the autumn is the surest time to do complete trimming, 
as it is easiest then to recognize diseased twigs, but the 

orchard should be carefully 
watched in spring also. If 
a large limb shows the blight, 
it is perhaps best to cut the 
tree entirely down. There 
is little hope for such a tree. 
A large pear grower once 
said that no man with a sharp 
knife need fear the fire blight. 
Yet our country loses largely 
by this disease each year. 

It may be added that win- 
ter pruning tends to make 
the tree form much new wood and thus favors the disease. 
Rich soil and fertilizers in a similar way make it much 
easier for the tree to "catch the blight." 




Fig. 90. Fire Blight Bacteria 
Magnified 



EXERCISE 

Ask your teacher to show you a case of fire blight on a pear or 
apple tree. Can you distinguish between healthy and diseased wood? 
Cut the twig open lengthwise and see how deep into the wood and 
how far down the stem the disease extends. Can you tell surely 
from the outside how far the twig is diseased ? Can you find any twig 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



107 



that does not show a distinct line of separation between diseased and 
healthy wood? If so, the bacteria are still living in the cambium. 
Cut out a small bit of the diseased portion and insert it under the 
bark of a healthy, juicy twig within a few inches of its tip and watch 
it from day to day. Does the tree " catch " the disease ? This experi- 
ment may prove to you how easily the disease spreads. If you should 
see any drops like dew hanging from diseased twigs, touch a little 
of this moisture to a healthy flower and watch for results. 

Cut and burn all diseased twigs that you can find. Estimate the 
damage done by this disease. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 153, on Orchard Enemies, published by the 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., can be had by writing 
for it, and will help your father much in treating fire blight. 



Oat and Wheat Smuts. Let us go out into the oat or 
wheat field and look for all the blackened heads of grain 
that we can find. How many are there ? To count accu- 
rately let us select an area one foot square. We must 
look sharply, for many 
of these blackened 
heads are so low that 
we shall not see them 
at first glance. You 
will be surprised to 
find as many as thirty 
or forty heads so 
blackened in every 
hundred. These 




Fig. 91. A Three Day Old 
Wheat Plant 

Smut attacks plants only about this age 



blackened heads are due to a plant disease called smut. 
When threshing time comes, you will surely notice a 
great quantity of black dust coming from the grain as it 
passes through the machine. The air is full of it. This 
black dust consists of the spores of a tiny fungus plant. 



io8 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



The smut plant grows upon the wheat or oat plant, ripens 
its spores in the head, and is ready to be thoroughly 
scattered among the grains of wheat or oats as they come 
from the threshing machine. 

These spores cling to the grain and at the next planting 
are ready to attack the sprouting plantlet. A curious 

thing about the smut is that it 
■f?^^ jr can gain foothold only on very 

young oat or wheat plants; that 
is, on plants about an inch long 
or of the age shown in Fig. 91, 
When grain covered with smut 
spores is planted, the spores 
develop with the sprouting seeds 
and are ready to attack the 
young plant as it breaks through 
the seed coat. You see, then, 
how important it is to have seed 
grain free from smut. A sub- 
stance has been found that will, 
without injuring the seeds, kill 
all the smut spores clinging to 
the grain. This substance is 
formalin. Enough seeds to 
plants a whole acre can be treated 
with this formalin at a cost of only a few cents. Such 
treatment insures a full crop and clean se^d for future 
planting. 

Fig. 92 illustrates what may be gained by using seeds 
treated to prevent smut. The annual loss to the farmers 
of the United States from smut on grain amounts to 




Fig. 92. Treated and 
Untreated Wheat 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



109 



several millions of dollars. All that is needed to prevent 
this loss is a little care in the treatment of seeds. 

EXERCISE 

Count the smutted heads on a patch three feet square and estimate 
the percentage of smut in all the wheat and oat fields near your 
home. On which is it most abundant? Do you know of any fields 
that have been treated for smut? If so, look for smut in these fields. 
Ask how they were treated. Do you know of any one who uses 
bluestone for wheat smut? Can oats be treated with bluestone? 

At planting time get an ounce of formalin at your drug store or 
from the State Experiment Station. Mix this with three gallons of 
water. This amount will treat three bushels of seeds. Spread the 
seeds thinly upon the barn floor and sprinkle them with the mixture, 
being careful that all the seeds are thoroughly moistened. Cover 
closely with blankets for a few hours and plant very soon after treat- 
ment. Try this and estimate the per cent of smut at next harvest time. 
Write to your Experiment Station for a bulletin upon smut treatment. 



h, 

J'^ " 



s\ ?i 





Fig. 93 
A Scabby Seed Potato 



Fig. 94 
A Healthy Seed Potato 



The Potato Scab. The scab of the white, or Irish, potato 
is one of the commonest and at the same time most easily 
prevented of plant diseases. Yet this disease diminishes 
the profits of the potato grower very materially. Fig. 93 
shows a very scabby potato, while Fig. 94 represents a 
healthy one. 





Fig. 95 

From a scabby potato, like the one 
in Fig. 93, this yield was obtained 



Fig. 96 

From a healthy potato, like the one 
in Fig. 94, this yield was obtained 




Fig. 97 
Sprayed potatoes on left ; unsprayed on right 



no 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



I I I 



This scab is caused by a fungous growth upon the surface 
of the potato. It of course lessens the selhng price of the 
potatoes. If seed potatoes be treated to a bath of for- 
mahn just before they are planted, the formalin will kill 
the adhering fungi and greatly diminish the amount of 
scab at the next harvest. 

Before planting, seed potatoes should be soaked in a weak 
solution of formalin for about two hours. One half pint of 
formalin to fifteen gallons of water makes a proper solution. 





Fig. 98. Yield from Two Fields of Same Size 
The one at top was sprayed ; the one at bottom was unsprayed 

One pint of formalin, or enough for thirty gallons of water, 
will cost but seventy-five cents. Since this solution can be 
used repeatedly, it will do for many bushels of seed potatoes. 

Late Potato Blight. The blight is another serious dis- 
ease of the potato. This is quite a different disease from 
the scab and so requires different treatment. The blight 



112 



A(iKK ULrUKI'. lOK lUa 1 1 N N I.KS 



is caiisiMl I>\ .luntluM luMjMis, wluch ;itt;i(ks llu- l<»li;ii;i' ol 
till- |)()Lit() pl.ml. W'hrn llu- 1)1il;IU sriii)usl\ .ill.icks ;i 
crop, il _i;c'nci.illN (K'stioNS tlu" cn^\) c-omplcU'h . In \\\c 
yoar I«*^I5 -» pol.ito lamiiir c^xhMulini; oxn .ill llu- UiuUhI 
St;itrs .111(1 I'.uiopi" w.is Ciniscd l)\' this clisi'iisc. 




I' li. .1.) Sl-K A\ I M. M \t I 1 I N I 



Spi.iNin;; is \\\c umiuhIn tor this ilisiMsc. h'i;;. i)S 
sh(>\\s tlu" olloot i>l spr.iN ini; iii>on tlu' \icKl. ' In this i-;isc* 
tho si>i.i\oil lirKl \irKk\l \\\\cc IhhuIuhI aiul t\\ont\ loui 
Inislu'ls .m .irio, whilo iho iinspi.i\oil NioKh'.*! onl\ ono 
hiiiuhoil Inishrls to o.uh .uic\ l'"i_i;. 07 shows tlu^ losiilt 
ol ihioo .ipplii'.it ions ol tlu" spi.i\in_;: nnxtiiio upon tlu' 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



113 



diseased field, 
is done. 



Figs. 99 and 100 show how the spraying 



EXERCISE 



Watch the potatoes at the next harvest and estimate the number 
that is damaged by scab. You will remember that formalin is the 
substance used to prevent grain smuts. Write to your State Experi- 
ment Station for a bulletin telling how to use formalin, as well as for 




Fig. 100. Spraying Machine 



information regarding other potato diseases. Give the treatment a 
fair trial in a portion of your field this year, and watch carefully for 
results. Make an estimate of the cost of treatment and of the profits. 
How does the scab injure the value of the potato ? The late blight 
can often be recognized by its odor. Did you ever smell it as you 
passed an affected field ? 



114 



AGRICULTURE P^OR BEGINNERS 



The Club Root. The club root is a disease of the cab- 
bage, turnip, cauliflower, etc. Its general effect is shown 
in the illustration (Fig. loi). Sometimes this disease does 
great damage. It can be prevented by the use of lime at 
the rate of from eighty to ninety bushels per acre. 

The Black Knot. The black knot is a serious disease of 
the plum and cherry tree. It attacks the branches of the 
tree and is well illustrated in Fig. 102. Since it is a con- 
tagious disease, great care should be exercised to destroy 
all diseased branches of the wild or cultivated plums or 



■' ►- >■ 




KiG. TOT. Clui? Root 



cherries. In many states its destruction is enforced by 
law. All black knot should be cut out and burned some 
time before February of each year. This will cost little 
and save nuich. 



THE DISEASES OF PLANTS 



115 



The Peach Curl. The peach curl docs damage amounting 
to about ^3,000,000 yearly m the United States. It can 
be almost entirely prevented by spraying with Bordeaux 




Fic;. 102. lii.ACK Knot 
From Hodge's " Nature Study and Life," (Jinn & Company 

Mixture before the buds open in the spring. A weak 
mixture should be used, since the leaves may be injured 
by too much copper. 

The Cotton Wilt. Cotton wilt completely destroys the 
crop when it once establishes itself in the soil. The fungus 



ii6 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



remains in I he soil and no amount of spraying will avail. 

'Flic only known remedy is to ciiltivale a resistant variety of 

cotton or to rotate the 
croj). 

The Fruit Mold. Iniiit 
mold, or brown rot, oitt'ii 
attacks the unri|)e fruit 
on the tree, and tuiiis 
it soft and brown and 




V\C.. lO^. Mol.DV Tkacuks 

finally fuzzy with a coat of mildew. 
V\y^. 103 shows some ])eaches 
thus attacked. Often tlie fruits 
do not fall fron\. the trees biil 
shrivel up and become " nnnn- 
mies" (big. 104). This rot is one 
of the most serious diseases of 
])lums and peaches. It proba- 
bly diminishes the \alue of the^ 
l)each harxest fiom fifty to 
seventy-five per (>ent. It can be ,,.„, ,^,, ,,„,,^,, ^i,,,,„„,, 
largely jjrevented by spraying 

the tree several times with the l^ordeaux and other 
mixtures. 





I ^1 



■y w y ^-^^w^pwpB^^^mwipH^wi^^iwwy^ 



•ir,t_ 



l<Jn^ , ■'''■ 



'n.s 



Pr 




-^yfi , 



». 












I^'k;. 105. IIai.1' oI' Iki';!', si'UavI'.d 

Nolo difference in UAy.if^i- luul fniit on the sjiniyed ;uid iiiispniycd li:ilv(;s, and 
the difference in yield. I-nnn l'<iilletin No. 20 (Veg. I'liys. and I'atli.), 
United States Department of Agriculture 



"7 



CHAPTER VI 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS 



SECTION XXIX — INSECTS IN GENERAL 

Tlic farmer who lias fc)Ui;ht " l)iigs " on crop after crop 
needs no argument to convince him tliat insects are serious 
enemies to ai;riculture. Yet even he may be surprised to 

learn that the damag-e 
done by them, as esti- 
mated by good author- 
ity, is as higli as four 
hundred milhon dollars 
yearly for the Ihiiled 
Slates and Canada. 

livery one thinks he 
knows what an insect is. 
If, h o w e V e r, w e are 
willing in this matter to 
make our notion agree 
with that of the people 
\^dio have studied insects 
most antl know t hem 
best, we must include among the true insects onl\- such air- 
breathing animals as have six legs, no more, and ha\e the 
body divided into three parts, — head, thorax, and abdomen. 
These parts are clearly shown in L'ig. io6, which represents 

iiS 




I'^ic. 106. An'I's 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS 119 



the ant, a true insect. All insects do not show the divisions 
of the body so clearly as this figure shows them, but on 



Ovipositor 




Coxa 
Trochanter 
T\ Femur 
^Tarsal Segments 

Fig. 107. Parts of an Insect 

careful examination you can usually make them out. The 
head bears one pair of feelers, which in many insects also 
serve as organs of hearing and 
sometimes of smell. Less promi- 
nent feelers are to be found in the 
region of the mouth. These serve 
as organs of taste. 

The eyes of insects are conspic- 
uous. Close examination shows 
them to be made up of a thousand 
or more simple eyes. Such an 
eye is called a compoimd eye. An 
enlarged view of one of these is 
shown in Fig. 108. 

Attached to the thorax are the legs and also the wings, 
if the insect have wings. The rear portion is the abdomen, 




Y\G. 108. CoMP<nJNi) Kyk 
01-' I>RA(;oN Fly 



120 



ACKICULTUKK KOK lilOCl N NKRS 



and lliis, like tlu' oilier ])arls, is comixjscd of joints. The 
inseet breathes throiii^h opeiiini^s in the abdomen called 
spiracles (see 1m.<;-. \oj). 

An examination of si)iders, mites, and lice shows eight 
legs; thereloie these do not belong to the true insects, nor 
do the thousand-legged worms and theii" relatives. 

The chief classes of insects are as follows : the Hies, 
with two wings oidy; the bees, was[)s, and ants, with lour 
delic-ate wings; the bcelles, 
with four wings, — two hard, 
horny ones covering the two // 

more delic-ate ones. When 






V\K\. 10(). 'rilh, lloi SI', l''l.V 

") ^'yS i /', l.uva, or ni;ij;j;(>t ; , , i>iii);i ; ,/, .uliilt lu.ili'. (All riil.utjod.) From I loilgc's 
" Natiirr Sliuly aiul l.ilr," (iimi vS; Company 



the beetle is at rest its two hard wings meet in a straight 
line down the back. This peculiarity distinguishes it from 
the true bug, which has four wings. The two outer wings 
arc partly horny, and in folding lap o\er each other. 
Hutlerdies and moths are much alike in appearance, but 
differ in habit. The buttcrlly works by day and the moth 
by night. Note the knob on the end kA the butlerHy's 
feeler, '["he moth has no such knob. 



OKCIIAKI), (^.ARDEN, AND FIKLI) INSECTS 121 




a 

V\c,. I in. A I'.iu; 
/', side vifw oi siKkiii;^, moiitli piiit 



It is important to know liovv insects take their food, for 
by knowing this we are able oftentimes lo destroy insect 
pests. Some are pio- 
vided with moutli i)arts 
fitted to ])ite their food ; 
others liave a lonp^ tube 
witli wliich they pii'icc 
|)lants or animals, and, 
hke the m()S(|nilo, suck 
their food from the in- 
side. The insects of this 
latter class cannot of 
course be harmed by 
poison on the surface 
of the leaves on which 
they feed. 

Many insects change \ 
their form fiom youth to 
old age so much that you 
can scarcely lecognize 
them as the same l)ein<;s. 
I^' i r s t comes the e<; <;■. 
The egg hatches into a 
wormlike animal known 
as grub, or caterpillar, or 
more accurately larva. 
This creature settles 
down and spins a home 
of silk, called a cocoon (I'ig. i 15). If we open the cocoon, 
we shall find that the animal is now coveied with a hard 
outside skeleton, and that it cannot move freely, and that 




I'"i(;. III. I'.i'.i'.ii.K 

I.iuva, pui);i, ;idult, and hiinow 



I 22 



ACKKUl/IDKI': I'OR HKCINNI'.KS 



it cannot cat at all. An animal in this state is known as 
Xhc fii/^a (Im^s. 115 and ii<)). Sonu'tiini-s, however, the 
pupa is not (M)\('ro(l hy a coooon, is soil, and has sonic 
j)owcr ol motion. Aitia- a rest in the i)ui»a sta_i;c.', the 
animal emer<;i's as a maturi' insect (iMgs. 11.2 and 113). 




I"'i(:. 1 I .•. Moi^i AND (\)e()ON 

1moii\ Uiulm-'s " N.itmr .Stiuly .ultU^ilV," (iiiiii i\ (.■oiuiniiy 



h'rom this \o\\ c;in sc>e that it is c\s|)cHaall\ i'mportant to 
kiunv all the steps in the lili' ol inpnious insiHls, since it 
is olten easier to kill the i)est at one stai;e ot its lile than 
at another. .Sonulinu's wi' <Io better to aim at the appar- 
iMitly harmless beetle orbutteilh' than to tr\^ to deslri)y the 




I'lc. I 1 J. Htrn'KKM.Y 

I'lDiii I )i( Udsoii's " Mollis ;iM(l r.iittci flics," ( iiiiii »S>' r(mi|);iiiv 



Abflontftn. of liitUt^rlUj 
7(5" a « 



'Hwrax of Bn Hcrlly 
I 

I \ 






/ruo/.ef/s 



Spimcle Protei/s- (nuUi'HOjh'tjs) 

{Tempo ra nj CatorpilUir 



V'\{\. \\.\. S TKiicniKi'; oi' iiii': ( 'a ri.Ki'i i.i.ak 
Jmoih Ditkcrsoii's " Mdllis mid r.iiltiillii-,," dinii »\: (.'oiiijciny 



124 



AC.KICULTUKK KOK liKCilNNKKS 



larva- that lialcli from its c^^s, since, as yon must rcmem- 
1)(M-, it is generally tin; larvct that do most liarni. While 
in the larval stage, growth is very rapid; therefore the 
food supply must be very threat to meet the insect's needs. 




I'"i(;. lie;. Moiii I'l I'A IN Cocoon 
From Dickerson's " Mollis .iiul Huttcrfli^'s," (iinn iv Conipiiny 

Some inseds, like the <;rasshop|)er, do not' completely 
change lorm. i*'ig. 117 lepresents young grasshoppers, 
which very closely resemble theii- i)arents. 

Inseds lay many eggs and reproduce with wonderful 
rapidity. They thus make up in number what they lack 



OKCiiAKi), cAkDi'.N, AND i"ii:li) insi:c'is 125 



*tv 



V. N, 



^^ 



in size. The ({uecn honeybee often lays as many as four 
thousand eg^s in twenty-four liours. A siiii;]c liouse fly 
lays ])etween one hundriMl 
and two hundred eggs in one 
night. Tlie mosquito lays 
eggs in quantities of from 
two hundred to four hundred. 
The white ant often lays 
eighty thousand in a day, and 
so continues for two years, 
probably laying no less than 
forty million eggs. The blue- 
bottle fly in one summer has 
five hundred million descend- 
ants. The plant louse at the 
end of the fifth brood in a 
single year has laid six trillion 
eggs, and that is not all of 

^.^ / . which she is capable. Of course every 

'*--Vi'S®/--- ^^^ kiKnvs that owing U) enemies and 
disease comparatively few of the insects 

hatched from these 




Fk;. I 16. A Hi) IIKKKI.V I'lJI'A 

Note oullinoof biiUcrfly. (I-'roiii Dick- 
ersoii's "Moths aiul llnttcidics," 
(iinn & Coni]);iny) 



Fig. 1 17 
The Growth 

oi'' A (Jkass- 

IIOI'I'KK 






eggs live to be 
grown. 

EXERCISE 



Collect cocoons and 
pup;L' of in.secls and 
hatch them in a breed- 
ing cage .similar to the 
one illustrated in Fig. 1 19. Make several cages of this kind. Collect 
larvee of several kinds ; supply them with food from plants upon 



,1(1/ ■■ 



126 



AC.RICULTURK FOR 15K(;iNNKRS 



whicli you found thcni. I'^ind out tlu,> time it takes thcni to change 
into another stage. Write a description of this process. 

The plant louse ])roduces in its twelfth brood 10,000,000,000,000,. 
000,000,000 orfsi)ring. These are about one tenth of an inch long. 

If all should live, how many miles 
long would such a procession be if 
arranged in sinole fde ? 





Fic. I iS. ri.ANr Lk;k 



l''i(;. 1 ii). C'ack in w 111(11 
'ro lUiKKD Inskcts 

Flowerpot, lamp cliininey, and 
cloth. (I<"roin a jiliotograph 
fiirnislicd hy Mrs. Anna B. 
C'onistock, Cornell University.) 



SECnON XXX — ORCHARD INSl-.CFS 



The San Jos^ Scale i.s one of tlu' nio.st drcadod ononiics 
of frtiit trees. It is in taet an outlaw in many states. It 
is an illei^^al aet to sell Iruit trees affected by it. l^'ii;-. 120 
shows a view ol" a hraneh nearly eoveretl with this pest. 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS 127 



Although this scale is a very minute animal, yet so rapidly 
docs it multii)ly that it is very''^dani;eroLis to the tree. 
Never allow new tiees to he brouG^ht into your orchard 
without positive knowledge that they are free from the 
scale. If you find the scale gaining entrance to your 
orchard, promptly burn the tree affected, in order to save 
the others. l^y very vigorous spraying with kerosene 









Fh;. 120. San Josf: Scai.I'. I^'ic. 121. Sinci.k San Josk ScaM': 

From a diawiii^ lurnislicd by the (Maj,nii(ic(l.) I'Voiii an cii/^ravin^' fuiiiislicd l)y 
United States Department of the United Slates Department of Agricul 

Agriculture tare 

emulsion (see Appendix) of fifteen \wx cent strength you 
can keep these tiny animals in check ; but, unless you aie 
sure to spray properly and thoroughly, it is better to biu'u 
the trees than to run risks. 

The f(^llowing statement is taken from one of the Experi- 
ment Station bulletins: ** We wish particularly to imj)ress 
upon the minds of fruit growers that as soon as the scale 
is found in an orchard, the most strenuous measures must 



128 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



be taken to stamp it out. No halfway measure will suffice. 
The individual^ust remember that not only are his own 
interests vitally at"stak^e, but those of the entire community 
in which he resides. Trees badly infested should be instantly 
burned, as previously stated. The individual may think that 




Fic;. 122. The Codi.inc. Moth 

a, burrow of worm in apple ; If, place where egg was laid ; e, the larva ; d, the pupa ; 
/, the cocoon ; /and g, moths 

he cannot bear the loss, but theJoss in consequence of the 
slightest neglect will be much greater. The fact, too, that 
there is a community of interests among fruit growers in 
this matter must not be lost sight of. Fruit growers must 
be mutually helpful in an emergency like this." 

The Codling Moth attacks the apple, causing oftentimes 
a loss of from twenty-five to seventy-five per cent of the 




Fig. 123. A Tkai* I'OR tmk Coni.rNd Morn 

The end of the lower Imnd has been turned back to tlie left to show cocoons of 
the moth. (I'Voni a photo/^'niph furnished by J. M. Aidrich of tlie I'.xpcri- 
ment .Station of Idaho.) 



129 



I30 ACKui'i/iuKi': I'OK iua;iNNj:KS 

croj). In tlu' stale of New Yovk tliis insect causes an 
annuiil loss ol about thiee million dollars. The effect on 
the fruit is readih' seen in I'ii;. i 22. The moth lays the cg'i];" 
ontheyoun^ ai)|)le just alter the fall iA the blossom. She 
flies from apple to apple, (lepositini; an ei;i; eaeh time until 
trom lilly to thiw" huiulicHl e!;L;s are deposited. The larva, 
or " worm," soon hatehes and eats its wa\' into the apple. 
ihc alleeted apples ripen too soon and drop as "wind- 
lalls." The larxa tlu-n emei"L:;es iiom the a|)ple, moves 
i^enerall)' to a ti'ee, era wis u]) the trunk, and spins its 
eoeoon under a ridj^e in the bark. hrom the cnxoon the 
moth eomes read\' to start a new <;iMKMat ion. The last 
i;eneiation ol the season spcMuls the wintcM in the eoeoon. 

/)(<i/j//i///. l)estro\' orchard trash which ma\' ser\e as 
wintei- cpiarteis. Spia\' the 1 1 ce with I'aris i;reen as socm 
as the llowcMs fall. Trap the worms b\' eloth bands 
wrai">i)cHl about the tree trunk about loui- wc\'ks after the 
blossoms lall. The lollowiui;- is a piadieal wa\' of tiaj)- 
piui;-. Make four inch bands (){ eotton ilaimel, burlaj), or 
heavy jKipca-, and fasten them c^losely around the trunk 
(I^'ii;-. [2}). Sinc-e the moth nearly alwa\s c^limbs the tree 
in searcdi ol a place to si)in its c'oeoon, and stops under the 
fust sheltei-, this band will catch most oi' them. Collect 
and destioy the lai"\;e ov cocoons thai nou secMire onc^c 
every six days. As many as o|ie hundred and ten lar\;e 
have been thus caught on one tree hi one week. If these 
had all emei-i;ed as moths, how man\' apples- could they 
hax'c dest loyed ? 

It is best to use the nordeau\T\iris-i;reen mixture for a 
spray. This |)revents luni;i and insects by one spraying 
(see Api)endix). 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FII<:LD INSECTS 131 

The Plum Curculio, sometimes called the ])liim weevil, is a 
little fellow about one lilth ol an iiieli loii.i;, that, notwith- 
standing;" its diminutive size, does, il neglected, great damage 
to our fruit crop. It injures the fruit by stinging it as 
soon as it is formed. The word s//;/o///i^- when applied to 
insects, and this case is no exception, means piercing the 
object with the egg-layer (ovipositor) and depositing the 
G^tlig. Some insects occasionally use the o\'i[)osit()r merely 
for defense. The curculio has an especially interesting 




Fk;. 12.\. ri.DM (IIUCIII.KJ 
T,;irv;i, pup^i, adult, and mark on the Iriiit. (I'Jilar;,'f(l.) 



method of laying its egg. First she digs a hole, places 
the egg in it, and j^ushes it well down. 'I'hen she makes a 
crescent-shaped cut with her snout in the skin of the plum 
around the egg. This mark is shown in V\g. 124. As this 
peculiar cut is followed by a flow of gum, you will always 
be able to recogni/e the work of the curculio. Having fin- 
ished with oiu; i)lum, this industrious worker shows similar 
courtesy to other plums until her eggs are all laid. The 
maggot-like larva soon hatches, burrows through tlu; fiuit, 
and causes it to droj) before ripening. The larva then enters 



132 



AGRICULTURE FOR BE(;iNNr:RS 




tlic ground to a depth of several inches, Tliere it becomes 
a pupa, and then a mature beetle that emerges to winter in 
cracks and crevices. 

Trcaijuoit. \\\\\\\ orchard trash which may serve as 
winter quarters. When the curculio is laying its eggs, it 
may be made to fall to the ground by jarring the tree. 
After its fall it will remain (|uiet for a few minutes, "play- 
ing possum." By spreading a sheet under the tree and 

jarring the tree we can 
collect and destroy 
enough insects to pre- 
vent serious injury. Jar 
the tree by striking a 
dead branch or by strik- 
ing the tree with a heavy 
stick wrapped in cloth. 
Neither of these methods 
of jarring will injure the 
bark. If you have many 
trees to treat, you will 
save time by stretching 
sheets on frames. 
Fowls in the orchard do good by capturing the larvoe 
before they can l)urro\\, while hogs will destroy the fallen 
fruit before the larvae can escape. 

The Grape Phylloxera. This is a^serious pest. You have 
no doubt seen its galls upon the grape leaf. . These galls 
are caused by a small lOuse, the Phylloxera. Each gall 
contains a female, which soon fills the gall with eggs. 
These hatch into more females, which emerge and form 
new galls, and so the rhylloxera spreads. 



Fi( 






125. \,Y.\V Ci Al.l.S OK PUVI.I.OXKRA 

ON Clinton (Irafk J,kak 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS 133 




Fig. 126 
The Cankerworm 



Treatment. The Clinton grape is most liable 
to injury from this pest. Hence it is better to 
grow other more resistant kinds. If the lice 
disturb the roots, apply carbon disulphide, one 
part of disulphide to three parts of hot water. 

Cover closely with earth the part treated, to 
prevent the evaporation of the mixture. 

The Cankerworm is the larva of a moth. 
Because of its peculiar mode (^f crawling, by 
looping its body, it is often called the looping 
worm or measuring worm (Mg. 127, c). These worms 
are such greedy eaters that in a short time they can 
so cut the leaves of an orchard as to give it a scorched 
appearance. Such an attack practically destroys the 
crop and does permanent injury to the tree. The 
worm is green or brown and is striped lengthwise. If the 
tree is jarred, the worm has a peculiar habit of dropping 



) 



134 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



toward the ground on a silken thread of its own making 
(Fig. 126). 

In early summer the larvae burrow within the earth, 
pupate, and later emerge as adults (Fig. 127, </and e). You 
observe the peculiar difference between the wingless female, 
d, and the winged male, e. It is the habit of this wingless 



a 





Fig. 127. The Spring Cankerworm 
a, egg mass ; b, egg, magnified ; c, larva ; d, female moth ; e, male moth 



female to crawl up the trunk of some near-by tree in order 
to deposit her eggs upon the twig^. These eggs hatch into 
the greedy larvae that do so much damage to our orchards. 
Nearly all of the common birds feed freely upon the 
cankerworm, and benefit the orchard in so doing. The 
chickadee is perhaps the most useful. ** A recent writer is 
very positive that each chickadee will devour on an average 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS 135 



thirty female cankerworm moths a day. ... If the aver- 
age number of eggs laid by each female is one hundred 
and eighty-five, one chickadee would thus destroy in one 
day five thousand five hundred and fifty eggs, and in the 
twenty-five days in which the 
cankerworm moths crawl up 
the tree, would rid the orchard 
of one hundred and thirty- 
eight thousand seven hundred 
and fifty." These birds also 
eat immense numbers of 
cankerworm eggs before they 
hatch into worms. 

Treatment. The inability 
of the female to fly gives us 
an easy opportunity to prevent 
the access of the larval off- 
spring to the foliage of our 
trees, for we know that the 
only highway open to her or 
her larvae leads up the trunk. 
We must obstruct this high- 
way so that no crawling crea- 
ture may pass. This is readily 
done by smoothing the bark 
and fitting close to it a band 
of paper, making sure that it is tight enough to prevent 
anything from crawling underneath. Then smear over the 
paper something so sticky that any moth or larva that 
attempts to pass will be entangled. Printer's ink will do 
very well, or you can buy either dendrolene or raupenleim. 




Fig. 1 28. Eggs of the Fall 
Cankerworm 




Fig. 129. AitLK-TkKK TkNT CATKKriLLAR 
</, eggs ; /;, cocoon 



1.36 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS 137 



c- 



Encourage the chickadee and all other birds, except the 
Tjiglisli sparrow, to stay in your orchard. This is easily 
done by providing- food in time of need and by protection 
at all times. 

The Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar is a larva so well known 
that you only need to be told how to guard against it. The 
mother of this caterpillar is a reddish 
moth. This insect passes the winter in 
the Qgg state on the twigs (Fig. 129, a). 

Treatment. There are three chief 
methods, (i) Destroy the eggs. The 
Q^gg masses are readily seen in winter 
and may easily be collected and burned 
by boys. The chickadee eats great 
quantities of these eggs. (2) With 
torches burn nests at midday when all 
the worms are within. You must be 
very careful in burning or you will 
harm the young branches with their 
tender bark. (3) Encourage the resi- 
dence of birds. Urge your neighbors 
to make war on the larvae, too, since the 
pest spreads readily from farm to farm. 
Regularly sprayed orchards are rarely troubled by this ])csl. 

The Pear-Tree Girdler lays her eggs in the upper part of 
the twig. It is necessary that the larvae develop in dead 
wood. This the mother provides by girdling the twig so 
deeply that it will die and fall to the ground. 

Treatment. Since the larvae spend the winter in the 
dead twigs, burn these twigs in autumn or early spring, and 
thus destroy the pest. 




FiC. 130. TlIK I'KAK- 

Trkk Gikdi.kr at 
Work 

a, tlie /:(irdler; li, the egg 
hole ; c, the groove cut 
l)y girdler ; e, the egg 



I ^s 



ACKic iii;niKi': iok r.iaiiN nicks 



Peach Borer. In Im<;. 131 yoii sec ihc effect of the 
borer's activity. These borers often ;;ii(llc and lliereby 
kill the tree. h'i^-. I .^J shows the i)eilect state of the 
insect. The e^.^s 'H'<-' ';''<' <>'i ^li<-' peach or i)hini trees near 
the ;;i"oiin(l. As soon as the larva enicii;es, it bores into 




I'h;. I ;i. |{<»kkk Sicns around Mask of 1'kacii 'Iukk 

I'loiii Modj^^c's " N.itiiic Slmlv ;ni(l I.ilr," (iimi iv Comi).iiiv 

the baik and then- leniiins lor Jiionths, passing;" thron_i;h 
the |)Upa staL;e bclore it conu's out to lay ei;f;s lor another 
•generation. 

'r)tiU})i(H( . II thei-c are only a few trees in the orchard, 
(lii;"^inj; the worms out with a knilc is tlu^ best way of 
destroying them. N'on can know ol the borer's presence 
by the c.xiidini; L;nm oltcn seen on the 1 1 ec trunk. 



oKc iiAKi), (;ai<i>J':n, anu mi:ij) insiccts 139 



EXKRCISE 



How many aijplcs |)(,'r liuiHlrcd do you (iiid injured by the ( odliii^ 
mot 1 1 ? ( Oiled souk; (oiooiis Iroiii a, pear or a|)|)le lice ii) winter, plac c 
in a breeding ca^c, and walcli for the moths that come out. Do yon 
ever see the woodpecker Imuting for tliese same cocoons ? Can you iind 




l-'io. 132. I'KAcii Tkkk Mokkks, Mai.k and Fkmai.k 

Fenuilc witli l>r«a(l yellow Ij.uhI ;u,ross ■,i\nU)im-ii. (Ito/ii Hodge's 
" Nature Study ;uid Life'," (iinii ik C<jiiipany.) 



cocoons tl)at have been em|jtied by this bird? l-^stimate liow many 
he considers a day's ration. I low many aj^ples does he thus save? 

Wateh tli(; Mirrnlio biy her <-^;;s in tlie jjhnns, j>(;a( hes, or f lierries. 
What per cent of fruit is thus injur(;d ? I'-stimate the damage. 

Let the scliool offer a prize for the greatest number of tent < aler 
pillar eggs. Wal( h all Intes, such as apple, wild and cultivated 
cherry, oak, and many others. 



140 



ACKK IM/IUKI-: i'OK r.l'J i I N N I-: KS 



Make a collection of insects injurious to or( hard fruits, showing in 
each case the whole hic history of the insect, i.e. eggs, larva, pupa, 
and the mature insects. 



Sl'XrnON XXXI — (lARDlON AND F11':LD INS1':CTS 

The Cabbage Worm of llic early spring garden is a 
familiar object, but you may not know tbat the innocent- 
looking butterfly hovering here and there about the cabbage 
])atch is laying eggs which are soon to hatch and make 
the dreaded cabbage worms. ¥\g. 134 shows the butterfly 

and several stages of the larvic. V\<^. d 
shows the pupa case. You may find 
these cases during winter on trees, 
fences, and under l)oar(ls and stones. 
If you kill these i)upa^, you have the 

X satisfaction of knowing that you have 
l)revented many cabbage worms that 
^^ would have worked mischief the fol- 




lowmir 



year. 



'IlIK ClIINCM I>li(; 



Treatment. Hirds are a great aid in 
the dcstrud ion of t his pest . 1 ^i ris green 
on yoimg plants will also kill many 
larvae After the cabbage has headed, 
it is very difficult to destroy the worm. 
The Chinch Bug, attacking as it docs such important croj^s 
as wheat, corn, and grasses, is a well-known pest. It i:>r()b- 
ably causes more money loss than any other garden or field 
enemy. In Orange County, North Carolina, farmers were 
once obliged to suspend wheat growing for two years on 
accoimt of the chinch bug. In one year in the state of 
Illinois this bug caused a loss of four million dollars. 




Fk;. I j4. TiM'. ( a I!I!A(;i', Wokm and linii kkI'I.y 
From ori;,'iii;il fimiisln-d by M iiitifsrita l'",xjK'iiinr'iil Sliitioti 



'41 



142 



ACKJCULTUKl': FOR lilXilNNKKS 



TrratDiiiit. I'lilmt iinati'ly wc nniiiot i)rc\'cMU all of 
the (l:iniaL;c doiic by iliiiuh I)iii;s, bill wc cww diininish it 
soiiu'w hat by <;()()( 1 cU'an a_L;iicaillm\\ Hostroy their winter 
(|iiaiUMs by biiiniiiL; dry .i;''''^^» lca\'os, and rubbish in 

holds and Icncc rows. Although 
the insoil has wini;s, it seldom uses 
Ihein, usually lia\elini;()n loot ; ihere- 
h)re a deep lurrow around the lield 
to be protected will ini|)ede or sloj) 
the i)i()L;iess ol an iiuasion. The 
bu_i;s lall into the bottom ol the fur- 
row, and may there be killed by 
spra\'in<; with ktaosene emulsion. 
Write to tlu* l)i\ision of Mntomol- 
oi;y, \\'ashini;ton, for Bulletin i 5, on 
the ehineh bui;-. Ollua- methods of 
prex'ention are to be found in that 
bulletin. 

The Plant Louse is \eiy dimiiui- 
ti\e, but is one of the most jirolilie 
ol aimnals. Duiiui; t he sunnncM" the 
)()unL; are born ali\i\ and it is only 
towaid fall that e_L;L;s are resorted 
to. The indixiduals that hatch fiom 
ei;;;s dlfi'cr from those boin ali\e in 
that the\' linve winL;s, and cm\ mo\e 
uioie rapidly iVom i)laee to |)laee. 

i'he plant louse <;i\es off a sweetish lluiil of whic^h some 
ants are very fond. \'ou may often see the ajits strokini;- 
these liee to induce them to i;i\e off a more copious How 
ol tlu> "honev dew." This is leallv a luc'lhocl of milkiuL!-. 




i''i(;. 1^,5. Tm'-. I'l.ANi' 



ORCIIAKI), C/VKDllN, AND FllOLI) INSIX'IS 143 



However friendly and useful these "cows" may be to tlu> 
ant, they are enemies to man. You may sometimes find 
your plant actually covered with these minute ( reatiires. 

Tnatvicnt. These are sucking insects. Poisons there- 
lore do not avail. They may he killed hy sprayini;^ witli 
kerosene emulsion. 

The Squash Bug docs its «;reatcst d;nn;i.<;(' to young 
plants. To such its attack is oltt-n i;it;d. On larger 
plants single leaves may die. This 
insect is a serious enemy to a cMop, ;nid 
is i)articularly difficult to get rid ol, 
since it belongs to the class of suckin*:" 
insects, not to the biting insects 
this reason poisons aie useless. 

Treat }n 01 1 . About 
the only piact icable 
remedy is to pick these 
insects by hand. Wi- 
can, however, protect 
our young j)l;mts by 
small nettings, and thus 
tide them o\'er the most 
dangerous i)eiiod ol 

their lives. The bugs greatly prefer the scpiasli as food. 
You can, therefore, diminish their attack on your melons, 
cucuml^ers, etc., by planting among the melons an occa- 
sional squash plant as a 'Mra]) ])lant." Hand picking will 
be easier on a few tiap plants than over the whole field. 
A small board laid beside the young |)laiit often furnishes 
night shelter for the bugs. 'I'lie 1)Ul;s eolleeted under the 
board mav casilv be killed every morning. 




I'k;. 156. A Cni'.Ai' Si'Uavin<: Oniiri 



144 



ACRICULTUKI': KOK Hi:c. I N N i:ks 




I'Mc. I 57. A Si.niAsii IWu; 



The Flea-Beetle inflicts much (lamn;;c on tlic polalo, 
loinato, c^|;l>''">^ •'"*' '>ll><^'' K'^'d*^''! plants. The acconi- 

l)anying figure shows the 
work of the llea-heelle 
upon the toniato. The 
larva ol this beetle lives 
inside ol t he leaves, 
mining its way through 
the leal in a real tunnel. 
Any substance disagree- 
able to the beetle, such 
as j)laster, soot, ashes, or 
tobacco, will re|)el its attacks upon the L;arden. 

The Weevil is connuonly found among- seeds. Attacks of 
this insect ari' serious, but the inscnt may be easily destioyed. 
TreatDiciit . I*ut the infected seeds in a tight bo.\ or bin, 
|)lacing on the top oi the pile a f\ 

dish containing carbon disulphide, 
one teas|)oonlul to each bushel of 
seeds. The lumes oi this sub- 
stance ail' heavy and will pass 
through the mass of seeds below 
and kill all the weexils and other 
animals there. 'I'he bin should 
bi' closely coxered with canvas, oi' 
heavy ("loth, to i)re\ent the fumes 
Irom being c-arried away by the i.iiu's on sides siiow umI length 
air. Let the seeds remain thus of inserts 

hom two to li\i' days. Caution: Do not a|)|)i()a("h the 
bin with a light, since the fumi's of the chemical used are 
hii-hK' inllanuuai)le. 




I 

l''ie.. 1 5S. l'"i.i-..\ lU-.K'rrF, 
AND Lakva 



01<( IIAKl), (w\kI)i:N, AND I'llJJ) INSI'XrS 145 




The Hessian Fly docs more damage to llic wheat nop 
than all other insects combined, and probably ranks nc .\t 
to the chinch bu<; as the second worst insect enemy of the 
farmer. It was probably introduced into this country by 
the Hessian troops in the war of the Revolution. 

In autumn the insect lays its e^/^s in the leaves of the 
wheat. These hatch into the larva:, which move down into 
the ground, where they 
l)ass the winter. There 
they cause on the plant 
a slight gall formation, 
which injures the plant. 
In spring an attack is 
made higher up on the 
stalk of the i)lant. 

Treatment. Burn all 
stubble and trash to kill 
the wintering insects. If the fly is very bad, it is well to 
leave the stubble unusually high to insure a rapid spread of 
the fire. Ikirn refuse from the threshing machine, since 
this often harbors many eggs. Some peoi)le advocate 
planting a decoy, or trap strip, of earlier wheat to catch 
the lly, and then destroying this strip with the flies on it. 
This method has not yet been thoroughly tried. If you 
wish to try it, be sure to turn your decoy crop under so 
deep that the fly cannot come to the surface. 

The Potato Beetle, Tobacco Worm, etc., are too well known 
to need descrijition. Suffice it to say that no good farmer will 
neglect to protect his crop from any pest that threatens it. 

The increase, owing to various causes, of insects, of 
fungi, of bacterial diseases, makes a study of these pests, 



I'k;. I 5<;. Till'; IIi-.ssian I'l.v 



146 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



of their orii^in, and of llicir prevention a necessary part of 
a successful farmer's training. Tillage alone will no longer 
render orchard, vineyard, and garden fruitful. Protection 
from disease must be added to tillage. 

In dealing with plants, as with human beings, the 
great object should be, not the cure, but the prevention 




Fig. 140. Increasing thk Viki.d ok Fruit 

of disease. It is far too c^ostly to wait for disease to 
develop and then to attempt its cure if the disease can 
be prevented. 

EXERCISE 

How many chinch bugs can you find in winter condition ? Are 
they worse in wet or dry weather? On what cro])s are they found.? 

Mow does the squash bug resemble the plant louse.? Is this a 
true bug? (father some eggs and watch the development of the 



ORCHARD, GARDEN, AND FIELD INSECTS 147 

insects in a breeding cage. Estimate the damage done to some crops 
by the flca-bcctlc. What is the best method of prevention ? 

Do you know the large motli that is the mother of the tobacco 
worm? You may often see her visiting the blossoms of the Jimson 
weed. Some tobacco growers cultivate a few of these weeds in a 



i 


2^ifJV^^J|'^^W^v!]K. ^^^Ab*'* 4ffl^T) ^flh^PAs^?^^ i - 


'■^m 


'^m 








'0^^^^^ 






at io-' 









VW.. 141. l'k<;l'KKI.Y CAKKl) FOR 



tobacco field. In the blossom they place a little cobalt or " fly-stone " 
and sirup. When the tobacco-worm moth visits this flower and sips 
the poisoned nectar, she will of course lay no more troublesome 
tobacco-worm eggs. 



CIIAI'IICK VII 
FARM CROPS 

Every crop of the farm has l)c'c'n changed and improved 
greatly since the forefathers of that croj) were wild plants. 
Those plants that best serve the needs of the farmer and 
farm animals have undergone the greatest changes and 
ha\e received also the greatest care and attention in their 
production and improvement. 

While we ha\e very many (nffereiil kinds of farm 
crops, the greater part of the cultivated area of the world 
is occupied by a very few. The croj) thai is most valu- 
able and that occupies the greatest land area is generally 
calletl the grass crop. Included in the general term gntss 
crop are all the various grasses and clovers that are used 
for pasturage and for hay. Next to grass in value come 
the two great cereals, corn and wheat, closely followed by 
the greatest fiber crop, cotton. Oats rank fifth in xalue, 
potatoes sixth, and tobacco seventh. 

Success in growing any crop is most largely due to the 
suitableness of soil and climate to that crop. When the 
planter selects both the most suTtal;)le soil and the most 
suitable climate for each crop, he gets not only the most 
bountiful yield from the croj), but in addition he gets the 
most desirable cjuality of i)roduct. A little careful obser- 
vation and study soon teach what kinds of soil |)roduce 
cro])s of the highest excx'Uence. This learned, the i)lanter 

1 .jS 



FARM CROPS 



149 



is able to grow in each field the several crops best adapted 
to that special type of soil. Thus we have tobacco soils, 
trucking soils, wheat and corn soils. Dairying succeeds 
best in a section where crops like cowpeas, clover, alfalfa, 
and corn are peculiarly at home. 




Fig. 142. A Coition Plant 

The figures below give the average amount of money 
made annually per acre on our chief crops. 

Average Values per Acre of the Various Crops 

t 

Flowers and plants, ;^20i4; nursery products, ^170; 
onions, ^138; sugar cane, $^y ] small fruits, ;^8i; hops, 
$72>\ vegetables, ^54; tobacco, $^2] sweet potatoes, ;^37; 



150 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

hemp, ;^34; potatoes, $2,?>\ sugar beets, :^3o; sorghum 
cane, ;^2i; cotton, ^15; orchard fruits, $i4\ peanuts, $1^) 
flaxseed, $9; cereals, $8; hay and forage, $8 ; castor beans, 
$$ (United States Census Report). 



SECTION XXXII — COTTON 

Although cotton was cultivated on the Eastern conti- 
nent before America was discovered, this crop owes its 
present imperial place in the business world to the zeal 
and intelligence of its American growers. So great an 
influence does it wield in modern industrial life that it is 
often called King Cotton. Thousands upon thousands of 
people scan the newspapers each day to see what price its 
staple is bringing. From its bounty a vast army of toilers, 
who plant its seed, who pick its bolls, who gin its staple, 
who spin and weave its lint, who grind its seed, who refine 
its oil, draw daily bread. Does not its proper production 
deserve the best thought that can be given it "? 

In the cotton belt almost any well-drained soil will pro- 
duce cotton. The following kinds of soil are admirably 
suited to this plant : red and gray loams with good clay 
subsoil ; sandy soils over sandstone and hmestone ; rich, 
dry bottom lands. The safest soils are medium loams. 
Cotton land must always be weir drained. 

Cotton was originally a tropical plant ; but, strange to 
say, it seems to thrive best in temperate zones. The cotton 
plant does best, according to Newman, in climates which 
have {a) six months of freedom from frost ; (b) a mod- 
erate, well-distributed rainfall during the plant's growing 




151 



152 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



period ; {c) abundant sunshine and little rain during the 
plant's maturing period. 

In America, the Southern States from Virginia to Texas 
have these climatic qualities, and it is in these states that 
the cotton industry has been developed until it is one of the 
giant industries of the world. This development has been 
very rapid. As late as 1736 the cotton plant was grown as 
an ornamental flowering plant in many front yards ; in 1 899, 
11,199,994 bales of cotton were grown in the South. 

There are a great many varieties of cotton. Only two 
of these, however, are of much interest to the practical 
American farmer. These are (i) the short-stapled, upland 
variety most commonly grown in all the Southern States; 









y 










1 


k.-^ 




■-^^^. . 


fe- TV. 


-'•' '-ii^' •' " ''^"^ 


,:&•■>' 


P3K- 


■-^ 


^^^^^mm 



Fig. 144. In the Growing Season 

and (2) the beautiful, long-stapled, black-seeded sea-island 
variety that grows upon the islands and a portion of the 
mainland of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida. The 
air of the coast seems necessary for the production of 



FARM CROPS 153 

this latter variety. The seeds of this sea-island cotton are 
small, smooth, and black. They are so smooth and stick 
so loosely to the lint that they are separated from the 
lint by roller instead of saw gins. When these seeds are 




Fig. 145. Ready for Picking 

planted away from the soil and air of their ocean home, 
they increase in size and stickiness. 

Many attempts have been made to increase the length 
of the staple of the upland varieties. Some of the meth- 
ods tried were as follows : selection of seed having a long 
fiber ; special cultivation and fertilization ; crossing the 
short -stapled variety on the long-stapled variety. This last 
process, as already explained, is called hybridizing. Some 
of these attempts have, in a measure, succeeded, and every 
farmer ought to plant seed from the longest-stapled variety 
that his land will grow. Moreover, his seed should be 
selected from the stalks that have the largest bolls and the 
greatest number to the stalk. 

The cotton plant is nourished by a tap root that will seek 
food as deeply as loose earth will permit it to penetrate ; hence 



154 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

the first plowing, unless the land is a loose, sandy loam, 
should be done with a two-horse plow, and should be deep 
and thorough. This deep plowing not only allows the tap 
root to penetrate, but it also admits a circulation of air. 

On some cotton farms it is the practice to break the 
land in winter or early spring and then let it lie naked 
until planting time. This is not a good practice. The 
winter rains wash more plant food out of unprotected soil 
than a single crop would use. It would be better, in the 
late summer or fall, to plant crimson clover or some other 
protective and enriching crop on land that is to be planted 
in cotton in the spring. This crop, in addition to keeping 
the land from being injuriously washed, would greatly 
help the coming cotton crop by leaving the soil full of 
vegetable matter. 

Just before planting time, the plowed land should be 
harrowed until the soil is fine and mellow. Do not spare 
the harrow at this time. It destroys many a weed that, if 
allowed to grow, would have to be cut by costly hoeing. 
Thorough work before planting saves much expensive work 
in the later days of the crop. Moreover, no man can 
afford to allow his plant food and moisture to go to nourish 
weeds even for a short time. 

The rows should be from three to four feet apart. The 
width depends upon the richness of the soil. On rich 
land the rows should be at least four feet apart. This 
width allows the luxuriant plant to bmnch and fruit well. 
On poorer lands the distance of the rows should .not be so 
great. The distribution of the seed in the row is of course 
most cheaply done by the planter. As a rule, it is best 
not to ridge the land for the seed. Flat culture saves 






ON 



3 
o 

o 

o 

o 




155 



156 y\(;Kiciii;ruKi'; iok uiicinnI'IKs 

moisture and often i)rcvcnts damage to tlic roots. In 
some sections, however, where the land is Hat and full of 
moisture, ridging seems necessary. 

The cheapest way of cultivating a crop is to prevent grass 
and weeds from rooting, not to wail to dc-slioy thcni after 
they are well looted. 'I'o do this, il is well to run the two- 
horse snioothing-harrow over the land, acioss the rows, a 
few days after the young ])lants are up. Kej)eat the liar- 
rowing in six or eight days. In addition to destroying the 
young grass and weeds, this harrowing also removes many 
of the young cotton ])lants and therehy saves mu(d"i hoe- 
ing at "chopping out " time. When the plants aie about 
two iiuhes high, they are " chopped out " to secure an 
evenly distributed stand. It is customary to leave two 
stalks to a hill. 

The number ol times the crop has to be worked de])ends 
u|)()n the soil and season. II the soil is diy and ])()r()us, 
cultivate as often as i)()ssil)le, and especially after each 
rain. Ne\er allow a crust to form after a rain; the roots 
of i)lants must have aii". Cultixation after each rain forms 
a dry mulch on the toj) of tlu^ soil and thus prevents the 
raj)id evaporation of moisture. 

If the fiber (the lint) only is removed from the land on 
which cotton is grown, cotton is the least exhaustive of the 
great cr()|)s giown in the United States. According to 
some lecent experiments, an average croj) ol c^otton removes 
in the lint only 2.75 i)oun(ls of Tiitrogen, ph(>s])h()ric acid, 
])otash, lime, and magnesia ])er avvc, while a crop ol ten 
bushels of wheat per acre removes 32.36 pouiuls ol the 
same elements ol |)lant food. Inasmuch as this ciop takes 
so little plant food from the soil, the cotton farmer has 



FARM CKOl'S 



•57 



no excuse for allowing his land to decrease in productive- 
ness. Two things will keep his land in bounteous har- 
vest condition : first, let him return the seeds in some 
form to the land, or, what is better, feed the ground seeds 
to cattle, make a profit from the cattle, and return manure 
to the land in place of the seeds; second, at the last work- 
ing, let him sow some crop like crimson clover or rye in 




Fig. 147. Wki(;iiing 



the cotton rows to protect the soil during the winter and 
to leave humus in the ground for the spring. 

The stable manure, if that is used, should be broad- 
casted over the fields at the rate of six to ten tons an 
acre. If commercial fertilizers are used, it is best to make 
two applications. To give the young plants a good start, 
put about tw(j hundred pounds to the acre in the drill just 
before planting. Then when the plants are about twelve 



I5S 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



or fifteen inches tall, br(xulcast one hundred or two hundred 
pounds to the acre. 

Relation of Stock to tlio Cotton Crop. On many farms 
much of the money for which the cotton is sold in the fall 
has to i;() to pay for the conmiercial fertilizer used in i;r()w- 
ini;" the croj). Should not this fact suggest efforts to raise 
just as good crops without having to buy so much ferti- 
lizer? Is there any way by which this can be done? The 
following suggestions may be hel[)ful. Raise enough stock 




I'lc. 1 (S. Iiii'-. Old and thI'", Nkw Hai.k 

to use all the cotton seed grown on the farm. To go with 
the footl made from the seed, grow on the farm pea-vine 
ha\-, clover, alfalfa, and other nitrogen-gathering crops. This 
can be done with small cost. What will be the result? 

h'irsl, to say nothing of the money made from the 
cattle, the large ([uantity (^S. stablejnanure saxetl will largely 
reduce the amount of conuuercial fertilizer needed. The 
cotton farmer cannot afford to neglcc't cattle raising. The 
cattle sections of the country are making the greatest 
progress in agriculture. 



FARM CROPS 



159 



Second, the nitrogen-gathering crops, while helping to 
feed the stock, also reduce the fertilizer bills by supplying 
one of the costly elements of the fertilizer. The ordinary 
cotton fertilizer consists principally of nitrogen, potash, and 
phosphoric acid. Of these three, by far the most costly 
is nitrogen. Now peas, beans, clover, and peanuts will 
leave enough nitrogen in the soil for cotton. Then, if they 
be raised, it is necessary to buy only 
potash and phosphoric acid. This is a 
very great saving. 

SFXTION XXXIII — TOBACCO 

The tobacco plant connects Indian 
agriculture with our own. It has always 
been a source of great profit to our 
people. In the early colonial days 
tobacco was almost exclusively our 
money crop. Many rich men came 
to America in those days merely to 
raise tobacco. 

Although tobacco will grow in almost 
any climate, the leaves, which, as most 
of you know, are the salable part of the 
plant, get their desirable or undesirable qualities very largely 
from the soil, and from the climate in which they grow. 

Excepting perhaps the grape, there is no other plant 
that is so much influenced by its surroundings as tobacco. 
Since this is true, it follows that tobacco growers must, 
with this crop more than with any other crop, study the 
peculiarities of their land. 




Fig. 149. A Leak 



i6o 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



The soil most acceptable to tobacco is one having the 
following characteristics: dryness, warmth, richness, depth, 
and sandiness. 

Since tobacco is an exhaustive crop, the greatest atten- 
tion must be given to keeping up the soil on which it is 
grown. Occasional crop rotation, and manures are abso- 
lutely necessary for keeping up the fertility in tobacco soils. 






' H'"^ 


*■ *■!:.•■ 








••^'•^2' 


^^.., 


WW 


^.T 


•*■ 


^■^..' 


* ■'^' /V^ii^^t^-^ ^ ■ 


..-^i.^^PC ^'^Si 


L&m 




h"^ 


miC'^ 




/^IB 




wEP^^ 


1^ /W^hh^ 


^ 


HPF^ 



Fio. 150. A Tkomisinu; Crot 

Commercial fertilizers also are well-nigh a necessity, for, 
as tobacco land is limited in area, the same land must be 
often planted in tobacco. Hence^^yen a fresh, rich Soil that 
did not at first require fertilizing soon becomes exhausted 
and robbed of its plant food by too many ci"ops being 
grown upon it without rotation, and frequent application of 
fertilizers and manures is therefore necessary. 



FARM CROPS 



l6i 



Deep plowing, from nine to thirteen inches, is also a 
prime necessity, for tobacco roots go deep into the soil. 
After this deep plowing, harrow until the soil is thor- 
oughly pulverized, and is as fine and mellow as that of the 

flower garden. 

Unlike most other farm crops, the 
tobacco plant must be started first 
in a seed bed. To prepare a tobacco 
bed, the almost universal custom is 
to proceed as follows. Carefully 





Fig. 151. Topping 



^ 



select a protected spot. Over this spot pile brushwood and 
then burn it. The soil underneath the burned brushwood 
will be left dry to a depth of several inches. It is then 
carefully raked and smoothed and planted. A tablespoon- 
ful of seed will sow a patch twenty-five feet square. If 
the seeds come up well, a patch of this size ought to furnish 
transplants for five or six acres. In sowing, it is not wise 
to cover the seed deeply. A light raking in or an even 
rolling of the ground is all that is needed. 



l62 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



The time required for sprouting is from two to three 
weeks. The plants ought to be ready for transplanting in 
from four to six weeks. Weeds and grass should of course 
be kept out of tlie seed bed. 

The plants, when ready, are transplanted very much as 
cabbages and tomatoes are transplanted. The rows should 
be from three to four feet apart, and the plants in the rows 

about two or three feet apart. If 
the plants are set so that the plow, 
and cultivator can be run with the 
rows and also across the rows, they 
can be more economically worked. 
Tobacco, like corn, requires shallow 
cultivation. Of com-se the plants 
should be worked often enough to 
give clean culture and to provide a 
soil mulch for saving moisture. 

In tobacco culture it is necessary 
to pinch off the "buttons" or to 
cut off the tops of the main stalk, 
else much nourishment will be given 
to the seeds that should go to the 
leaves. The suckers must also be 
cut off for the same reason. 
The proper time for harvesting is not easily fixed ; one 
becomes skillful in this work only through experience in 
the field. Briefly, we may say that tobacco is ready to be 
cut when the leaves on being held i\p to the sun show a 
light or golden color, when they are sticky to 'the touch, 
and are easily broken when bent. Plants that are overripe 
are inferior to those that are cut early. 




Fig. 152. A Hand 



FARM CROPS 



163 



The operations included in cutting, housing, ch-ying, 
shipping, sweating, and packing require skill and practice. 
The important varieties are as follows : 



I 


White Burley. 






6. 


Sumatra. 


2 


Prince Hismarck. 






7- 


Connecticut Seed Leaf. 


3 


(icncral (I rant. 






8. 


Ilyco. 


4 


Yellow Orinoco. 






9- 


Havana Seed. 


5 


I lavaiia. 






10. 


Pryor. 






1 1. 


Periq 


ue. 





SECTION XXXIV — WmCAT 

Wheat has been cultivated from earhest times. It was a 
chief crop in T^gypt and Palestine, and still holds its impor- 
tance in the temi)erate portions of luirope, Asia, Africa, 
" / Australia, and America. 



This crop ranks third 
in value; in the lluiled 
Slates. It grows in cool, 
tem})erate, and warm 
climates, and in many 
kinds of soil. It does 
best in clay loam, and 
poorest in sandy soils. Clogged and water- 
soaked land will not grow wheat with ])rorit to 
the farmer ; for this reason, where good wheat 
production is desired, the soil must be well 
drained and in good ])hysical condition, — that 
is, the soil must be open, crtimbly, and mellow. 

Clay soils that are hard and lifeless can be made valuable 
for wheat production by covering the surface with manure, 




164 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



by ^o()(l tillage, and by a thorough system of crop rotation. 
Cowpeas make a most valua])le crop to precede wheat, for 
in growing- they add atmospheric nitrogen to the soil ; their 
roots loosen the root bed, thereby admitting a free circula- 
tion of air, and adding humus to the soil. Moreover, the 

cowpea leaves the soil 
in the compact condition 
so much desired in wheat 
production. 

One may secure a good 
seed bed after cotton 
and corn as well as after 
l)eas. They are summer- 
cultivated crops, and the 
clean culture that has 
been given them renders 
the surface soil mellow 
and the undersoil firm 
and compact. They are 
not so good, however, as 
cowpeas, since they add 
no atmos])heric nitrogen 
to the s(jil, as all leguminous crops do. 

From one to two inches is the most satisfactory depth for 
planting wheat. The largest number of seeds comes up 
when j)lanted at this depth. A mellow .soil is very helpful 
to good coming uj) and provides ajiiost comfortable home 
for the roots of the plant. A compact soil below makes a 
moist undersoil; and this is desirable, for the soil water is 
needed to dissolve plant food and to carry it up through 
the plant, where it is used in building tissue. 




l'"ii;. 15.1. Koors oi' A SiN(;i,K 

WllKAT I'l.ANT 



H 



a- 

o 



CD ^■ 



d 
"—I 

c 
7, 

y. 
o 



w 
i> 

H 

r 




.65 



1 66 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



There are a great many varieties of wheat : some are 
bearded, others are smooth; some are winter and others 
are spring varieties. The smooth-headed varieties are 
most agreeable to handle during harvest and at threshing 
time. Some of the bearded varieties, however, do so well 
in some soils and climates that it is desirable to continue 
growing them, though they are less agreeable to handle. 




Fig. 156. Selecting Seed 

No matter what variety you are accustomed to raise, it 
may be improved by careful seed selection. 

The seed drill is the best implement for planting wheat. 
It distributes the grains evenly over the whole field and 
leaves the mellow soil in a condition to catch what snow 
may fall and secure what protection' it affords. 

In many parts of the country, because so little live stock 
is raised, there is often too little manure to apply to the 
wheat land. Where this is the case, commercial fertilizers 



FARM CROPS 



167 



must be used. Since soils differ greatly, it is impossible 
to suggest a fertilizer adapted to all soils. The elements 
usually lacking in wheat soils are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
and potash. 

The land may be lacking in one or all of these plant 
foods; if this is so, a maximum crop cannot possibly be 
raised. The section discussing manuring the soil will be 
helpful to the wheat grower. 

It should be remembered always in buying fertilizers for 
wheat that whenever wheat follows cowpeas there is no 




Fig. 157. A Bountiful Harvest 

need of using nitrogen in the fertilizer; the tubercles on 
the pea roots will furnish that. Hence only potash and 
phosphoric acid will have to be purchased as plant food. 

The farmer is assisted always by a study of his crop and 
by a knowledge of how it grows. If he find the straw 
inferior and short, it means that the soil is deficient in 
nitrogen ; but, on the other hand, if the straw be luxuriant 
and the heads small and poorly filled, he may be sure that 
his soil contains too little phosphoric acid and potash. 



i68 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



EXERCISE 

Let the pupils secure several heads of wheat and thresh each 
separately by hand. The grains should then be counted and their 
plumpness and size observed. The practical importance of this is 

obvious, for the larger the heads and the 
greater the number of grains, the larger 
the yield per acre. Let them plant some 
of the large and some of the small grains. 
A single test of this kind will show the 
importance of careful seed selection. 




SECTION XXXV — CORN 

When the white man came to this 
country, he found the Indian using 
corn; for this reason it, in addition to 
its name maize, is called Indian corn. 
Before that time the civilized world 
did not know that tKere was such a crop. The 
increase in the yield an^ the extension of the 
acres planted in this strictly American crop have 
kept pace with the rapid and wonderful growth 
of our country. Corn is king of the cereals, and the most 



FARM CROPS 169 

important crop of American agriculture. It is the backbone 
of farming in this country. Live stock of every kind are fed 
upon rations into which it largely enters, and it feeds more 
human beings than any other grain except perhaps rice. 
It grows in almost every section of America. 

A soil rich in both decaying animal and vegetable matter, 
loose, warm, and moist but not wet, will produce a better 
crop of corn than any other. Corn soil should always be 
well tilled and cultivated. 

The proper time to begin the cultivation of corn is 
before it is planted. Plow deeply. A shallow, worn-out 
soil should not be used for corn, but for cowpeas. After 
thorough and deep plowing, the harrow — cither the disk 
or spring tooth — should be used to destroy all clods and 
leave the surface mellow and fine. The best results will 
be obtained by '* turning under " a clover sod that has been 
manured from the savings of the barnyard. 

When manure is not available, commercial fertilizers 
will often prove profitable on poor lands. No one but the 
farmer himself is able to say how much fertilizer an acre 
is necessary or what kinds are to be used. A little study 
and experimenting on his part will soon enable him to find 
out both the kind and the amount of fertilizer that is best 
suited to his land. 

The seed for this crop should be selected according to 
the plan suggested in another section of this book. 

The most economical method of planting is by means 
of the horse planter, which, according to its adjustment, 
plants regularly in hills or in drills. 

A few days after planting, the cornfield should be har- 
rowed with a fine-tooth harrow to loosen the top soil and 



I70 AGRICULTURE FOR Br:GINNERS 

to kill the grass and the weed seeds that are germinating 
at the surface. When the corn plants are from a half 
inch to an inch high, the harrow should again be used. 
A little work at this stage will save many days of labor 
during the rest of the season. 

Corn is a crop that needs constant cultivation, and dur- 
ing the growing season the soil should be stirred at least 
four times. This cultivation is for three reasons: 

1. To destroy weeds that would take plant food and 
water. 

2. To provide a mulch of dry soil so as to prevent the 
evaporation of moisture. The action of this mulch has 
already been explained. 

3. Because *' tillage is manure." Constant stirring of 
the soil allows the air to circulate, provides a more effec- 
tive mulch, and changes unavailable plant food into the 
form that plants use. 

Deep culture of corn is not advisable. The roots in their 
early stages of growth are shallow feeders and spread all 
over the ground only a few inches below the surface. 
The cultivation that destroys or disturbs the roots injures 
the plants and lessens the yield. We cultivate because 
of the three reasons given above, and not to stir the 
soil about the roots or to loosen it there. 

In many parts of the country, the cornstalks are left 
standing in the fields or are burned. This is a great mis- 
take, for the stalks are worth a great deal for feeding 
horses, cattle, and sheep. These stalks ought always to 
be saved by the use of the husker and shredder. Corn 
after being matured and cut ought to be put in shocks and 
left thus until dry enough to run through the husker and 






n 
c 

in 

c 
n 

w 

o 

ij 
o 

?3 

H 

M 

C/D 

K 

?3 

w 
o 
d 
w 




171 



172 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGlNiNERS 



shredder. This machine separates the corn from the stalk 
and husks it. At the same time it shreds tops, leaves, and 
butts into a food that is both nutritious and palatable to 







« A 



f J m 



- * 




Fig. 160. The Differrnce is due to Tillage 
From Review ojRevievos 

Stock. Almost as much feeding value is obtained from 
corn stover treated in this way as from timothy hay. The 
practice of not using the stalks is wasteful and is fast being 



FARM CROPS 



173 



abandoned. The only reason that so much good food is 
being left to decay in the field is because so many people 
are ignorant of the feeding value of 
this stover. 

EXPERIMENT 

To show the effect of cultivation on the 
yield of corn, let the pupils lay off five plats 
in some convenient field. Each plat need 
consist of only two rows about twenty feet 
long. Treat each plat as follows: 

Plat I . No cultivation : let weeds grow. 

Plat 2. Mulch with straw. 

Plat 3. Shallow cultivation : not deeper 
than two inches and at least five times 
during the growing season. 

Plat 4. Deep cultivation : at least four 
inches deep, so as to injure and tear out 
some of the roots (this is a common 
method). 

Plat 5. Root pruning : ten inches from 
the stalk and six inches deep, prune the 
roots with a long knife. Cultivate five times during the season. 

Observe plats during summer, and at husking time note results. 




Fig. 161 



SECTION XXXVI — PEANUTS 

This plant is rich in names ; the terms ground pea, 
goober, earthnut, and pmdar, as well as the more general 
name of peanut, being applied to it locally. The peanut 
is a true legume, and, like other legumes, bears nitrogen- 
gathering tubercles upon its roots. The fruit, not a real 
nut but rather a kind of pea or bean, develops from the 



174 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



blossom. After the fall of the blossom, the "spike," or 
flower stalk, pushes its way into the ground, where the nut 
develops. If unable to penetrate the soil, the nut dies. 

In the United States, North and South Carolina, Vir- 
ginia, and Tennessee have the most favorable climates for 
peanut culture. Suitable climate and soil, however, obtain 




Fig. 162. A Good Shock 



from New Jersey to the Mississippi valley. A high, porous, 
sandy loam is the most suitable. Stiffer soils, while yielding 
better, injure the color of the nut. Lime is a requisite, and 
must be supplied if the soil is deficient. Phosphoric acid 
and potash are needed. 

Greater care than is usually bestowed should be given 
to the selection of the peanut seed. In addition to following 



FARM CROPS 



175 



out the principles given in Section XVIII, all musty, 
defective seeds must be discarded and all frosted kernels 
must be rejected. Before it dries, the peanut seed is 
easily injured by frost. The slightest frost on the vines, 
either before or after the vine is dug, does much harm to 
the tender seed. 

In growing peanuts, thorough preparation of the soil is 
much better than later cultivation. Destroy the crop of 
young weeds, but do not disturb the peanut crop by late 
cultivation. 

Harvest before frost, and shock high to keep the vines 
from the ground. 

The average yield of peanuts in the United States is 
seventeen bushels an acre. In Virginia the yield is twenty 
bushels an acre and in Tennessee it reaches thirty-two 
bushels an acre. 

SECTION XXXVII — SWEET POTATOES 

The roots of sweet potatoes are put upon the market in 
various forms. Aside from the form in which they are 
ordinarily sold, some potatoes are dried and then ground 
into flour, some are canned, some are used to make starch, 
some furnish a kind of sugar called glucose, and some are 
even used to make alcohol. 

The fact that there are over eighty varieties of potatoes 
shows the popularity of the plant. Now it is evident that 
all of these varieties cannot be equally desirable. Hence 
the wise grower will select his varieties with prudent 
forethought. Efforts should be made, as described in 
Section XVIII, to improve every variety selected. 



176 AGRICULTURE FOR BE(;iNNERS 

Vouv months of mild weather, months free from frost 
and cold winds, are neeessary for the growing of sweet 
potatoes. In a mild climate, almost any loose, well-drained 
soil will produce them. A light, sandy loam, however, gives 
a cleaner potato, and one therefore that sells better. 

The sweet potato draws potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric 
acid from the soil, but in applying these as fertilizers the 
planter must study and know his own soil. If he does not, 
he may waste both money and plant food by the addition of 
elements already present in sufficient quantity in the soil. 
The only way to come to reliable conclusions as to the 
needs of the soil is to try two or three different kinds of 
fertilizers on plats of the same soil, during the same 
season, and notice the resulting crop of potatoes. 

The sweet ])()tato does not require deep plowing. Deep 
plowing is even a disadvantage. Nor does it matter much 
what crop precedes sweet potatoes. However, potatoes 
should not follow a sod. This is because sods are often 
thick with cutworms, one of the serious enemies of the 
potato. 

It is needless to say that the crops must be kept clean 
by thorough cultivation until the vines take full possession 
of the field. 

In harvesting, extreme care should be used to avoid cut- 
ting and bruising the potato, since bruises are as danger- 
ous to a sweet potato as to an apple, and render decay 
almost a certainty. Lay aside all bruised i-)otatoes for 
immediate use. 

For shipment the potatoes should be graded. and packed 
with care. An extra outlay of fifty cents a barrel often 
brings a return ui one dollar a barrel in the market. One 



FARM CROPS 177 

fact often neglected by Southern growers who raise for a 
Northern market is that the Northern markets demand a 
potato that will cook dry and mealy, and that they will not 
accept the juicy, sugary potato so popular in the South. 

The storage of sweet potatoes presents difficulties, owing 
to their great tendency to decay under the influence of the 
ever-present fungi and bacteria. This tendency can be 
met by preventing bruises and by keeping the bin free 
from rotting potatoes. The potatoes should be partly dried 
and cleaned and then stored in a dry, warm place. 

The sweet potato vine makes a fair quality of hay, and 
with ]:)roper precaution may be used for ensilage. Small, 
defective, unsalable potatoes are rich in sugar and starch, 
and are therefore good stock food. Since they contain 
such a large per cent of water, they cannot be regarded as 
a concentrated food, and must be used only as an aid to 
other diet. 

SECTION XXXVIII — RICE 

The United States produce only about one half of the 
rice that this country consumes. There is no satisfactory 
reason for our not raising more of this staple crop, for five 
great states along the Gulf of Mexico arc well adapted to 
its culture. 

There are two distinct kinds of rice, upland rice and 
lowland rice. Upland rice demands in general the same 
methods of culture that are required by other cereals, as, 
for example, oats or wheat. The growing of lowland rice 
is more complicated, involving the necessity of flooding the 
fields at proper times with water. This is a much too 
difficult subject to enter upon here. 



1/8 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNKRS 

A stiff, half-clay soil with some loam is best suited to 
this crop. The soil should have a clay subsoil to retain 
water and to ^ive stiffness enou^i;h to allow the use of har- 
vesting machinery. Some good rice soils are so stiff that 
they must be flooded to soften them enough to admit of 
l)l()wing. Plow dee})ly to give the roots ample feeding 
space. (lood tillage, which is too often neglected, is 
valuable. 

Careful seed selection is perhaps even more needed 
for rice than for any other crop. Uniformity of kernel is 
demanded. Be sure that your seed is free from red rice 
and other weeds. Drilling is much better than broad- 
casting, as it secures more even distribution. 

The notion geiu'rally prevails that flooding returns to 
the soil the needed fertility. This may be true if the 
flooding water deposits much silt, but if the water be clear 
it is untrue, and fertilizers or leguminous crops are needed 
to kec}) up fertility. Cowpeas replace the lost soil elements 
and keep down weeds, grasses, and red rice. 

Red rice is a weed close kin to rice, but the seed of 
one will not produce the other. Do not allow it to get 
mixed and sowed with your rice seed, or to go to seed in 
your field. 

Write to the l)ei)artment of Agriculture for the fol- 
lowing bulletins : 

Division of Uotany, lUillctin 22. 

Division of Statistics, Misccllanepus Series, Report 6. 
OHiee of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 113. 
Farmers' Bulletin 110. 



FARM CKOl'S 179 



SECTION XXXIX— THE FARM (lARDION 

Every farmer should have a garden in wliicli lie should 
grow not only the vegetables needed lor the home table, 
l)ut also all the small fruits. 

The garden should always be within convenient distance 
of the farmhouse. If possible, the spot selected should 
have a soil of mixed loam and clay. Every foot of soil in 
the garden should be made rich and mellow l)y manure 
and cultivation. The worst soils for the home garden are 
light, sandy soils, or stiff, clayey soils ; but any soil, by 
judicious and intelligent culture, can be made suitable. 

In laying out the garden we should bear in mind that 
hand labor is the most expensive kind of labor. Hence 
we should not, as is commonly done, lay off the garden 
spot in the form of a square, but we should mark off for 
our purpose a long, narrow piece of land, so that the cul- 
tivating tools may all be conveniently drawn by a horse or 
mule. The use of the plow and hor.se cultivator enables 
the work of taking care of the garden to be done quickly, 
easily, and cheaply. 

Every vegetable or fruit should be ])lantcd in rows, and 
not in little patches. Beginning with one side of the 
garden the following plan of arrangement would be simple 
and complete : two rows to corn for table use ; two to 
cabbages, beets, radishes, and eggplants ; two to onions, 
peas, and beans ; two to oyster plants, okra, parsley, and 
turnips ; two to tomatoes ; then four on the other side can 
be used for strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, currants, 
and gooseberries. 



i8o 



a(;riculture for beginners 



The garden, when so arranged, can be tilled in the 
spring and tended throughout the growing season with 
little labor and little loss of time. In return for this odd- 
hour work, the farmer's family will have throughout the 
year an abundance of fresh, palatable, and health-giving 
vegetables and small fruits. 

The keynote of successful gardening is to stir the soil. 
Stir it often with four objects in view : 

1. To destroy weeds. 

2. To ventilate the soil. 

3. To enrich the soil by the action of the air. 

4. To retain the moisture by preventing its evaporation. 



corn 


corn 


cabbag^e 


beets 


radishes 


cabbage 


beets 


egg plants 


onions 


peas 


beans 


onions 


peas 


beans 


oyster plants 


okra 


parsley 


parsnips 


oyster plants 


okra 


parsley 


parsnips 




tomatoes 






tomatoes 




strawberries 


currants 


raspberries 


blackberries 


strawberries 


currants 


raspberries 


blackberries 


strawberries 


currants 


raspberries 


blackberries 


strawberries 


currants 


raspberries 


blackberries 



Fig. 163.. How to Lay out the Garden 



This illustration shows that practically every garden 
vegetable and all the small fruits can be included in the 
farm garden, and all the work be done by horse-drawn 
tools. ' 






H 
W 

> 



(J 

w 
(J 

M 




i8i 



CHAPTER VIII 
DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

The progress that a nation is making can with reason- 
able accuracy be measured by the kind of Hve stock it 
raises. The general rule is, poor stock, poor people. All 
the prosperous nations of the globe, especially the grain- 
growing nations, get a large share of their wealth by rais- 
ing improved stock. The stock bred by these nations is 
now, however, very different from the stock raised by the 
same nations years ago. As soon as man began to pro- 
gress in the art of agriculture he became dissatisfied with 
inferior stock. He therefore bent his energies to raise the 
standard of excellence in domestic animals. 

By slow stages of animal improvement the angular, thin- 
flanked wild boar of early times has been transformed into 
the sleek Berkshire or the well-roimded Poland-China. In 
the same manner the wild sheep of the Old World have 
been developed into wool and mutton breeds of the finest 
excellence. By constant care, attention, and selection, the 
thin, leggy wild ox has been bred into bounteous milk-pro- 
ducing Jerseys and Holsteins or into Shorthorn mountains 
of flesh. iM'om the small, bony, coarse and shaggy horse 
of ancient times has descended the ponderous Norman 
draft horse and the fleet Arab couf^ser. 

The matter of meat production is one of vital importance 
to man, for animal food must always supply a large part 
of man's ration. 

182 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 183 

Live stock of various kinds consume the coarser foods, 
like the grasses, hays, and grains, which man cannot use. 
As a result of this consumption they store in their bodies 
the exact substances required for the building up of the 
tissues of man's body. 

When the animal is used by man for food, one class of 
foods stored away in the animal body ]:)roduces muscle ; 
another produces fat, heat, and energy. The food fur- 
nished by the slaughter of animals seems necessary to the 
full development of man. It is true that the flesh of an 
animal will not support human life as long as would the 
grain that the animal ate while growing, but it is also true 
that animal food does not require so much of man's force 
to digest it. Hence by the use of meat a part of man's 
life struggle is forced u|)<)n the lower animal. 

When men feed grain to stock, they receive in return power 
and food in their most available forms. Men strengthen 
the animal that they themselves may be strengthened. 
One of the great questions, then, for the stock grower's 
consideration is how to make the least amount of food fed 
to animals produce the most power and flesh. 

SECTION XE — HORSES 

While we have a great many kinds of horses in America, 
horses are not natives of this country. Just where wild 
horses were first tamed and used is not definitely known. 
It is believed that they were first used for warfare and then 
gradually bred and adapted to other purposes. 

Where food was abundant and nutritious and climate 
mild and healthful, the early horses developed large frames 



i84 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



and heavy limbs and muscles ; on the other hand, where 
food was scarce and climate cold and bleak, the animals 
became as dwarfed as the ponies of the Shetland Islands. 
One of the first recorded uses of the horse is found in 
Genesis, chapter xlix, verse 17, where Jacob speaks of 
"an adder that biteth the horse heels." Pharaoh took 




Fig. 165. The Family Pet 

"six hundred chosen chariots" and ''with all the horses 
and chariots" pursued the Israelites. The Greeks at first 
drove the horse fastened to a rude chariot, and later found 
that they could manage the animal while on its back, with 
voice or switch and without eittiei* saddle or bridle. This 
ingenious people soon invented the snaffle bit, and both 
rode and drove with its aid. The curb bit was a Roman 
invention. Shoeing was not practiced by either Greek or 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



185 



Roman. Saddles and harnesses were at first made of skins 
and sometimes of cloth. 

Among the Tartars of middle and northern Asia, and 
also among some other nations, mare's milk and the flesh of 
the horse are used for food. Old and otherwise worthless 
horses are regularly fattened for the meat markets of France 




Fig. 166. Percheron Horse (the Draft Type) 

and Germany. Various uses are made of the different parts 
of a horse's body. The mane and tail are used in the manu- 
facture of mattresses, and the same parts furnish a hair- 
cloth for upholstering ; the skin is tanned into leather; the 
hoofs are used for glue, and the bones for making fertilizer. 
Climate, food, and natural surroundings have all aided in 
producing changes in the horse's form, size, and appearance. 



1 86 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



The varying circumstances under which horses have been 
raised have originated the different breeds. In addition, 
the master's selection had much to do in developing the 
type of horses wanted : some desired work horses, and they 





Fig. 167 

Diagram shows the proper shape of the fore and hind legs of a horse. 'When the 
straight lines divide the legs equally, the leg action is straight and regular 

kept the heavy, muscular, stout-limbed animals ; others 
desired riding and driving horses, so they saved for their 
use the light-limbed, angular horses that had endurance 
and stamina. The following table gives some of the dif- 
ferent breeds and the places of their development : 

I . Drafts or Hedvy^ Breeds 

1. Percheron, from the province of Perche in France. 

2. French Draft, developed in France. 

3. Belgian Draft, developed by Belgian farmers. 

4. Clydesdale, the draft horse of Scotland, 

5. Suffolk Punch, from the eastern part of England. 

6. English Shire, also from the eastern part of England. 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



187 



II. Carriage^ or Coach, Breeds 

1. Cleveland Bay, developed in England. 

2. French Coach, the gentleman's horse of France. 

3. German Coach, from Germany. 

4. Oldenburg Coach, Oldenburg, Germany. 

5. Hackney, the English high-stepper. 

III. Light, or Roadster, Breeds 

1, American Trotter, developed in America. 

2, The Thoroughbred, the English running horse. 

3, The American Saddle Horse, from Kentucky and Virginia. 

There is a marked difference in the form and type of 
these horses, and on this difference their usefulness depends. 

The draft breeds have short legs, and hence their 
bodies are comparatively close to the ground. The depth 





Fig. 168. Wide Hock 

This horse stands great strains and 
is not fatigued easily 



Fig. 169. Narrow Hock 

This horse becomes exhausted 
very easily 



of the body should be about the same as the length of leg. 
All draft horses should have upright shoulders, so as to 
provide an easy support for the collar. The hock should 
be wide, so that the animal shall have great leverage of 



i88 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



muscle for pulling. A horse having a narrow hock is not 
able to draw a heavy load, is easily exhausted, and liable to 
curb diseases (see Figs. i68 and 169). 

The legs of all kinds of horses should be straight : a 
line dropped from the point of the shoulder to the ground 
should divide the knees, canon, fetlock, and foot in two 
equal parts. When the animal is formed in this way, the 




Fk;. 170. The Roadster Type 

feet have room to be straight and square, with just the 
breadth of a hoof between them (Fig. 167). 

The roadsters are lighter in bone and less heavily muscled ; 
their legs are longer than those of the draft horses, and, 
as horsemen say, more " daylight '' can be seen under the 
body. The neck is long and thin, but fits njcely into the 
shoulders. The shoulders are sloping and long, and give 
the roadster ability to reach well out in his stride. The 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



189 



head is set gracefully on the neck, and should be carried 
with ease and erectness. 

Every man who is to deal with horses ought to become, 
by observation and study, an expert judge of forms, quali- 
ties, types, defects, and excellences. 

The horse's foot makes an interesting study. The horny 
outside protects the foot from mud, ice, and stones. Inside 




Fig. 171. Side View ok Legs 

The diagram shows how the straight lines ought to cross the legs of a 
properly shaped horse 



the hoof are the bones and gristle that serve as cushions 
to diminish the shock received while walking or running 
on hard roads or streets. When shoeing the horse, the frog 
should not be touched with the knife. It is very seldom 



1 90 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



that any cutting need be done. Many blacksmiths do not 
know this, and often greatly injure the foot. 

Since the horse has but a small stomach, the food given 
the animal should not be too bulky. In proportion to its 
size, its grain ration should be larger than that of other 
animals. Draft horses and mules, however, can be fed 




Z 1 7 

Fig. 172. How to Mkasure a Horse 

a more bulky ration than other horses, because they have 
larger stomachs and hence greater storage capacity. 

The horse should be groomed every day. This keeps 
the pores of the skin open and the hair bright and glossy. 
When horses are working hard, the harness should be 
removed during the noon hour. During the cool seasons 
of the year, whenever a horse is wet with perspiration, it 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 191 

should on stopping work, or when standing for a while, 
be blanketed ; for the animal is as liable as man to get 
cold in a draught, or from too rapid evaporation. 

EXERCISE 

If the pupil will take an ordinary tape measure, he can make some meas- 
urements of the horse that will be very interesting as well as profitable. 
Let him measure : 

1. The height of the horse at the withers, i to i. 

2. The height of the horse at croup, 2 to 2. 

3. Length of shoulder, i to 3. 

4. Length of back, 4. 

5. Length of head, 5. 

6. Depth of body, 6 to 6. 

7. Daylight under body, 7 to 7. 

8. Distance from point of shoulder to quarter, 3 to 3. 

9. Width of forehead. 
10. Width between hips. 

Note. Many interesting comparisons can be made (i) by measuring 
several horses, (2) by studying the proportion between parts of the same 
horse. 

Proportions of a Horse 

1 . How many times longer is the body than the head .'' Do you 
get the same result from different horses,-* 

2. How does the height at the withers compare with the height 
at croup ? 

3. How do these compare with distance from quarter to shoulder.? 

4. How does the length of head compare with thickness of body, 
and the open space, or " daylight," under the body ? 



192 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



SECTION XLI — CATTLE 



All farm animals were once called cattle ; now this term 
applies only to beef and dairy animals, — neat cattle. 

Our improved breeds are descended from the wild ox of 
Europe and Asia, and have attained their size and useful- 
ness by care, food, 
and selection. The 
uses of cattle are 
so familiar that we 
need scarcely men- 
tion them. Their 
flesh is a part of the 
daily food of man, 
— butter, cheese, 
and milk are on 
every table ; their 
hides go to make 
leather, and their 
hair for plaster ; 
their hoofs for glue ; 
their bones for fer- 
tilizers, ornaments, and buttons, and many other purposes. 
There are two main classes of cattle, — beef breeds and 
dairy breeds. The principal breeds of each class are as 

follows : 

I . Beef Breeds 

1. Aberdeen-Angus, bred in Scotland, and often called doddies. 

2. Galloways, from Scotland. 

3. Shortliorn, or Durham, an English breed of cattle. 

4. Hereford, also an English breed. 

5. Sussex, from the county of Sussex, England. 




V\v,. 173. A Pki/.k Winnkr 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 193 

II. Dairy Breeds 

1. Jersey, from the Isle of Jersey. 

2. (Guernsey, from the Isle of Guernsey. 

3. Ayrshire, from Scotland. 

4. Holstein-Frisian, from Holland and Denmark. 

5. Brown Swiss, from Switzerland. 

Other breeds of cattle are Devon, Dutch-Belted, Red- 
Polled, Kerry, American Holderness, and West Ilighland. 

In general structure there is a marked difference between 
the beef and dairy breeds. This is shown in Figs. 174, 175. 



f^ 



i,.l 



"^m"; 




Fig. 174. Aherdkkn-Angus Cow (a Bep:f Typf.) 

The beef cow is square, full over the back and loins, and 
straight in the back. The hips are evenly fleshed, the 
legs full and thick, the under line, or stomach line, parallel 



194 



A(.l<l( Ul.l IIKI'. I'Ok l'.l.(ilNNi:KS 



to the |);i( k line, ;iii<l llic neck lull :iti(l sliorl. 'I'lu' ryc 
sliould l)c l»ii;;lil, liic I.k c ;,ii(til, llu' holies oj line tcxluic, 

and llic nKiii :.<>! I .uul |)li.il>l(' 

'I lir d.iiiy (ovv is ;iI|();m'|I|(I (IiIIciciiI lioiii llic Ixcl cow. 
She shows ii (!(•( idcd vv('<l/;(* sh.i|>c when yoii look ;il hci 
li oiii I loiil , ;.i(|(-, .111(1 Kill . llu- h.K k liiK- is < I ookcd, lh(- 
i)l|> holies .Hid I. Ill hone .iic | )i oiiiiiiciil , llic lhi;;lis Mini .iiid 




I'k; c/', IMvM.v ('t>u (A Daikv I'vi'I') 

|)ooil\ llcshcd ; IIkic is no hic;idlh (o llu- h.K k, ;i;; in llic 
heel < ow. .ind lilllc llcsh covci S the slioiildci , ihc iiccU 
is km;' .iiid I Inn 

The iiddei (»l I he (kill \ cow h; mo;. I iiii|>(»i l.inl . It should he 
lull hill ii(»l llesh\'. well .itl.u hed heliind .iiid exlendiii!'. well 
hnw.iid. The l.ii;'_ei llie nddei , the iiioi e milk !',i\'en. 

The skin ol llie d.iiiN «(>w should he ^.oll .ind |>Ii.ihk', 
Aiu\ I he hones line le\l in ed. 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



'95 



The Dairy Type. Jiccausc ol lack ol llcsli oji llic hu k, 
loins, and tlii/^lis, the dairy type jjroduces neither /^ood noi 
profitable meat, 'i'his is because m lli<t daiiy animal food 
^<jcs lo piodiice milk rallici lli;iii bed. in llic same way 
the beef cow gives littlc! milk, since li<i lood goes rather 
lo fat than to milk. I'oi llic same reasons that you do 
not expect a plow hoise to win on the race track, you 
do not expect a cow 
of the beef typ(* to 
win j)rcmliims as a 
milker. 

"Scrub cattle^" 

are nr)t very i)rofit 

able. They mature 

slowly and conse- 

6)1 1(1 illy consume 

miK li lood Ixlore 

1 licy a re able to 

give any rcl urn lor 

it. Even when lat- 

Icncd, the fat and 

, . I'le, 176. Hi'.Ai) oi' A Oaii.oway Cow 

lean portions ar(! 

not evenly disti ibuted, and " ' l)oi( c cuts" are lew and small. 

Jiy lar ll)(t cheajKtst mclliod of securing a healthy and 
jMoiilable herd ol dairy or beel (altle is to save rmly the 
calves wliose sires are slandaidbied animals and wliose 
inolhers are native cows. In lliis way lainice, ol even 
111 lie means can soon build up an excellent herd. 

Improving Cattle. The la( t thai ii is not possible for 
every farmer to possess pure-bred (aiile Is no reason why 
lie should nol improve the stock he lias. lie e.ni do this 




196 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



by using pure-bred sires that possess the characteristics 
desired. Scrub stock can be quickly improved by the con- 
tinuous use of good sires. It is never wise to use grade or 
cross-bred sires, since they do not possess stable characters. 
Moreover, it is possible for every farmer to determine 
exactly the producing power of his dairy cows. When 
the cows are milked, the milk should be weighed and a 
record kept. If this be done, it will be found that some 

cows produce as 
much as four 
hundred or five 
hundred gallons a 
year, while others 
produce not more 
than half that 
quantity. If a 
farmer kill or sell 
his poor cows and 
keep his best ones, 
he will in a short 
while have a herd 
of only heavy milkers. Ask your father to try this plan. 
Read everything you can find about taking care of cows 
and improving them, and then start a herd of your own. 

Conclusions, (i) A cow with a tendency to get fat is 
not profitable for the dairy. (2) A thin, open, angular cow 
will make expensive beef. (.3) '* The sire is half the herd." 
This means that a good sire is "necessary to improve a herd 
of cattle. The improvement from scrubs upward is as 
follows : the first generation is one half pure ; the second 
is three fourths pure ; the third is seven eighths pure ; the 




Fig. 177. SiioKTiioRN Cuvv 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 197 

fourth is fifteen sixteenths pure, etc. (4) By keeping a 
record of the quantity and quaUty of milk each cow gives 
you can tell which are profitable to raise from and which 
are not. (5) Good food, clean water, kindness, and care 
are necessary to successful cattle growing. 

SECTION XLII — SHEEP 

The sheep was perhaps the first animal domesticated by 
man, and to-day the domesticated sheep is found wherever 
man lives. It is found domesticated or wild in every lati- 
tude, and finds sustenance and thrives where other animals 




Fig. 175. A Young Shepherd 

can scarcely live ; it provides man with meat and clothing, and 

is one of the most profitable and easily cared for of animals. 

Sheep increase so rapidly, mature at such an early age, 

and their flesh is so wholesome for food that most farms 



EuilS^-L*. 




w 
X 
H 

oi 
O 

Q 

< 






198 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



199 



should have their flock. Another consideration that may 
be urged in favor of sheep raising is that sheep improve 
the land on which they are pastured. 

Sheep are docile, easily handled, live on a greater diversity 
of food, and require less grain than any other kind of live 




P'iG. 180. In the Pasture 



stock. In mixed farming there is enough food wasted on 
almost every farm to maintain a small flock of sheep. 
Sheep may be divided into three classes : 



II. 



Fine- Wooled Breeds 

1. American Merino. 

2. Delaine Merino. 

3. Rambouillets. 

Medinni- Wooled Breeds 

1. Southdown. 

2. Shropshire. 

3. Horned Dorset. 



4. Hampshire Down. 

5. Oxford Down. 

6. Cheviot. 

III. Long- Wooled Breeds 

1 . Leicester. 

2. Lincoln. 

3. Cotswold. 



200 



ACKicin/ri'Ki': I'oK iu-:(;innkks 



The first p;r(>up is <;r()wn ])riiK ii);illy for wool, and mutton 
is secondary ; in the second, nuillon comes first and wool 
second ; while in the third both are imiM)rtant considera- 
tions. Wool is naluie's protection tor the sheep. Have 
you ever ojKUicd the fleece and observed the clean skin 
in which the libers ^row ? These fibers, or hairs, are so 
r()U^i;hencd that they push all diit away from the skin 
towards the outside ol the llccte. 

Wool is valuable in proportion to the lenL;th and even- 
ness of the liber and the density ot the lleece. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many pounds oui^ht a llcccc of wool to wcii^h ? 

2. Which makes the better clothing, coarse or line wool ? 

3. Why aic sIutj) w.islu'd before beint; sheared? 

4. Does cold weather liouhle sheep? wet weather? 



SECTION XLIIT — SWINK 

The wild boar is a native of luu'ojie, Asia, and Africa. 
These wild hoL;s are the i)arents from which all otu" domestic 





'1, -,< ^ , ' ' ' ('\,)i'''" '-'''' i.'^^^'i «. '" '■ 

\ 
l-'n;. iSi. \ViiuMi wi^. Yoi' k.msk? 

breeds have sprun*;. In many parts o\ the w()rld the wild 
boar is still fotnul. These animals are acti\e and power- 
ful, and as they grow older are fierce and dangerous. In 



DOMES'I'K* ANIMALS 



2or 



their wild staU; they seek moist, sandy, and vvell-vvooded 
I)laces, close to streams of water. Iheir favorite foods are 
fruits, grass, and roots ; hut when i)ressed hy hunger they 
will eat snakes, worms, and even higher animals, like birds, 
fowls, and (ish. 

Man eai)tured some of these wild animals, h'd them ahiui- 
d;mt and luiliilioiis food, a(Hustomed them to domestic lilc, 
selected llu; hesl of tluin to raise hom, and in the; course 







\''\C.. 1S2. A I'Alk ol' I'OKKI'.KS 



of generations developed our present breeds of hogs, 'i'he 
main changes brought about in hogs were these : the legs 
became shorter, the snout and neck likewise shortened, the 
shoulders and hams iiuTcased their power to take on flesh, 
and the frame was strengthened to carry the added burden 
of fiesh. In addition, tlu^ disposition became more (juiet 
and less roving. 

The hog excels all othcT animals in the cheai) pro- 
duction of meat. When it is properly W-d and cared loi, 



202 AGRICULTURE P^OR BEGINNERS 

it will make the farmer more money in proportion to cost 
than any other animal on the farm. 

The most profitable type of hog has short legs, small 
bones, straight back and under line, heavy hams, small well- 
dished head, and heavy shoulders. The scrub and *' razor- 
back " hogs are very unprofitable, and consume an undue 
amount of food to produce a pound of gain. It requires two 
years to get the scrub to weigh what a well-bred pig will 




Fig. 183. A Good Type 

weigh when nine months old. Scrub hogs can be quickly 
changed in form and type by the use of a pure-bred sire. 

A boy whose parents were too poor to send him to 
college once decided to make his own money and get an 
education. He bought a sow, and began to raise pigs. 
He earned the food for both mother and pigs. His hogs 
increased so rapidly that he had to work hard to keep 
them in food. By saving the "rrroijiey he received from the 
sale of his hogs he had enough to keep him two years in 
college. Suppose you try his plan, and let the hog show 
you how fast it can make money. 



DO MP: STIC ANIMALS 203 

Wc have several l^recds of swine. The imjiortant ones are : 



I. Large Breeds 

1. Chester White. 

2. Improved Yorkshire. 

3. Tamworth. 

1 1 . Mcdhun Breeds 

1. Berkshire. 

2. Poland-China. 



3. Duroc-Jersey. 

4. Cheshire. 

III. Small Breeds 

1. Victoria. 

2. Suffolk. 

3. ICssex. 

4. Small Yorkshire. 



Hogs will be most successfully raised when kept as little 
as possible in pens. They like the fields and the pasture 
grass, the open air and the sunshine. Almost any kind of 
food can be given them. Unlike other stock, they will 
devour greedily and tirelessly the richest feeding stuffs. 

The most desirable hog to raise is one that will produce 
a more or less even mixture of fat and lean. Where only 
corn is fed, the body becomes very fat and is not so desir- 
able for food as when middlings, tankage, cowpeas, or soja 
beans are added as a part of the ration. 

When hogs are kept in ])ens, cleanliness is most 
important to reduce the danger of disease. 




Fig, 184 



;o4 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



SECTION XLIV— FARM POULTRY 

Our geese, ducks, turkeys, and domestic hens are all 
descendants of wild fowls, and are more or less similar to 
them in appearance. 

The earliest recorded uses of fowls were for food, for 
fighting, and for sacrifice. Briefly, the domestic fowl has 

four well-defined uses, — egg 
^^f)> production, meat production, 

feather production, and pest 
destruction. 

You already know that 
nearly every farmer raises 
a few fowls for the produc- 
tion of his own eggs and 
meat, and to help with the 
grocery bill ; but you may 
be surprised to learn that the 
farmers of the United States 
got in 1899 ^144,286,158 
from the sale of eggs alone. 
A little proper attention 
would very largely increase 
the already handsome sum derived from our fowls. They 
need dry, warm, well-lighted, and tidily-kept houses. They 
must have, if we want the best returns, an abundant supply 
of pure water and a variety of nutritious foods. In cold, 
rainy, or snowy weather they should have a sheltered yard, 
and in good weather should be allowed a range wide enough 
to give them exercise. Their bodies and their nests must 
be protected from vermin. 




Fig. 185. Cock 




Fig. i86. Breeding Yards 




Fig. 187. Incubator 



205 



206 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



Geese, ducks, and turkeys are not so generally raised as 
hens, but there is a constant demand at good prices for 
these fowls. 

The varieties of the domestic hen arc as follows: 



I . Leghorn. 



I. Brahma. 



I . Egg Breeds 
2. Minorca. 3. Spanish. 4. Red Cap. 

11. Meat Breeds 
2. Cochin. 3. Langshan. 



in. General Purpose Breeds 

1. Plymouth Rock. 3. Java. 5. Dorking. 

2. Wyandotte. 4. Dominique. 6. Indian Game. 

7. Rhode Island Red. 

IV. Fancy Breeds 
I. Polish. 2. Game. 3. Sultan. 4. Bantam. 




Fig. 188. Bro6i)KR 



As the price of both eggs and fowls is steadily advanc- 
ing, a great many people are now raising fowls by means 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



207 



of an incubator for hatching, and a brooder as a substitute 
for the mother hen. 

The use of the incubator is extending each year and is 
now ahiiost universal where any considerable number of 
chicks is to be hatched. The incubator will doubtlessly 
be used wherever poultry production is engaged in upon a 
large scale. 

The brooder is employed to take care of the chickens as 
soon as they leave the incubator. 



SECTION XLV — BEE CULTURE 

Stock raisers select breeds that are best adapted to their 
needs. Plant growers exercise great care in their choice 
of plants, selecting for each planting those best suited to 
the condition in which they are to 
be grown. 

Undoubtedly a larger yield of 
honey could be had each year if 
similar care were exercised in the 
selection of the breed of bees. To 
prove this, one has only to com- 
pare the yield of two different 
kinds. The common East Indian 
honeybee rarely produces more than 
ten to twelve pounds a hive, while 
the Cyprian bee, which is a most 
industrious worker, has a record of one thousand pounds in 
one season from a single colony. This bee, besides being 
industrious when honey material is plentiful, is also very 
persevering when such material is hard to find. These 




Fig. 



189. a corniolan 
Worker 



From a drawing furnished by 
the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 



208 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 




Cyprians have two other very desirable quahties. They 
stand the cold of winter well, and stoutly defend their 
hives against robber bees and other enemies. 

The Italian is another good bee. This variety was 
imported into the United States in i860. While the yield 
'^ ^ from the Italian is 

^St^ Jr somewhat less than 

J39!i / from the Cyprian, 

the Italia n bees 
produce a whiter 
comb and are a trifle 
more manageable. 

The common 
black or brown bee 
is found wild and 
d o m e s t i c a t e d 
t h r o u g h out t h e 
country. When 
honey material is abundant, these bees equal the Italians 
in honey production; but, when the season is poor, they 
fall far short \\\ the amount of honey produced. 

The ])urchase of a good Cyprian or Italian hive will 
richly repay the buyer. This colony will cost more at the 
outset than an ordinary colony, but will soon pay for its 
higher cost by greater production. 

A beehive in the spring contains one queen, several 
hundred (hones, and froi'n thirty-five to forty thousand 
workers. The duty of the queen is to lay all the eggs 
that are to hatch the future bees. This she does with 
l)n)verbial industry, often laying as many as four thou- 
sand in twenty-four hours. 



I''i(;. i(;o. A CoKNUn.AN I)K((N1<: 

l'"nmi ;i dnivviiit^ fiiniished by (lu- United States 
I )epartinLMit of Agriculture 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



209 



The workers do all of the work. Some of ihoni visit 
the flowers, take up the nectar into the honey sac, located 
in their abdomens, and carry it to the hive. There other 
woikers create a breeze by buzzing with their wings, and 
produce heat by their activity, — all to cause the water to 
evaporate from the nectar and to convert it into honey 
before it is sealed u[) in the comb. After a big day's 
gathering you may often hear these tireless workers l)u//- 
ing till late into the night, or even all through the night. 

You know that the bees get nectar from the flowers of 
various i)lants. Some of the chief honey plants arc alfalfa, 
buckwheat, horse nn'nt, sourwood, white sage, wild penny- 
royal, black gum, holly, chestnut, magnolia, and the tulip, 
often called the po])lar. The yield of honey may often 
be increased by providing s[)ecial 
pasturage for the bees. The 
linden tree, for example, besides 
being ornamental and valuable 
for timber, produces a most bee- 
inviting flower. Vetch, clover, 
and most of the legumes and 
mints are valuable plants to fur- 
nish pasture for bees. Catnip 
may be cultivated for the bees 
and sold as an herb as well. 

In spraying fruit trees to pre- 
vent disease, you should always 
avoid spraying when the trees are in bloom, since the poison 
of the spray seriously endangers the lives of your bees. 

The eggs laid by the (|ueen, if they are to produce workers, 
require about twenty-one days to bring forth the perfect 




Fl(".. 191. A ("oKNIoLAN 
(^)III';KN 

From a drawing furnished hy tiie 
United States Department of 
Agriculture 



2IO 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



bee. The newly hatched bee commences Hfe as a nurse. 
When ten days old, it begins to try its wings in short 
flights, and in two weeks it begins active work. You may 

distinguish young exercising 
bees from real workers by 
the fact that they do not fly 
directly away upon emerging 
from the hive, but circle 
around a bit in order to make 
sure that they can recognize 
home again, since they would 
receive no cordial welcome if 
they should attempt to enter 




Fig. 192. Goon Form of IIivk 



another hive. They hesitate upon returning from even 
these short flights, to make sure that they are in front of 
their own door. 

There are several kinds of enemies of the bee which all 
bee keepers should know. One of these is the robber 
bee, that is, a bee from another colony attempting to steal 
honey from the rightful owners, an attempt often result- 
ing in frightful slaughter. Much robbery can be avoided 
by clean handling, — that is, by leaving no honey about to 
cultivate a taste for stolen 
sweets. 

Queenless or otherwise 
weak colonies should be 
protected by a narrow 
entrance that admits only 
one bee at a time. Such a pass may be easily guarded. 
Fig. 193 shows a good anti-robbery entrance which may 
be readily provided for every weak colony. Mice may be 




Fig. 193. AwTi-RoiiBiNG Fntkance 
^t, stationary piece ; s, slide ; /, pin, or stop 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 211 

kept out by tin-lined entrances. The widespread fear of 
the kinf^bird seems unfounded, lie rarely eats anything 
but drones, and very few of them. This is also true of the 
swallow. Toads, lizards, and spiders are, however, true 
enemies of the honeybee. 

EXERCISE 

Can you reco<2;iii/.e (Irones, workers, and ([ucens? Do hecs usually 
limit their visits to one kind of blossom on any one trip? What 
effect has the kind of flower on tlie flavor of the honey produced } 
What kind of flowers should the bee keeper provide for his bees.? 
Is the kingbird really an enemy to the bee.'* Apply to Division of 
I^ntomology, Washington, D.C., for Bulletin i, on the honeybee. 

SECTION XLVi — WHY vvi: fki:d 

In the first place, we give various kinds of feeding 
stuffs to our animals I bat tliey may live. The heart beats 
all the time, the lungs contract and expand, digest ion is 
taking place, the blood circulates through the body — 
something must siij)i)ly force for these acts or the animal 
dies. This force is derived from food. 

In the next place, food is rc(|uii-e(l to keep the body 
warm. h^xxl in this respect is fuel, and acts iu the same 
way that wood or coal does in the stove. Our bodies are 
warm all the time, and they are kept warm by the food we 
eat at mealtimes. 

Then, in the third j^lace, food is required to enable the 
body to enlarge, to grow. If you {(lad a colt just enough 
to keep it alive and warm, there will be no material present 
to enable it to grow ; hence you must add enough food to 
form bone and flesh and nuiscle and hair and fat. 



212 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

In the fourth place, we feed to produce strength for work. 
An animal poorly fed cannot do so much work at the plow 
or on the road as one receiving all the food needed. 

Both food and the force produced by it result from the 
activity of plants. By means of sunlight and moisture, 
a sprouting seed, taking out of the air and soil different 
elements, grows into a plant. Then, just as the plant feeds 
upon the air and soil to get its growth, so the animal feeds 
upon the plant to get its growth. Hence, since our animals 
feed upon plants, we must find out what is in plants to 
know what animal food consists of. What, we are now 
ready to ask, are plants made of ? 

Chemists have found out that in studying plants there 
are five important groups of substances to be considered. 
These are protein, carbohydrates, fat, mineral matter, and 
water. What is each of these, and what use does the 
animal make of each ? 

First, protein, the most important, must be considered. 
The animal food called by this queer name is not unknown 
to you. You have all your lives seen it in compounds like 
the white of an egg, lean meat, or the gluten of wheat. It 
is made of three gases (oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen) 
and two solid bodies (carbon and sulphur). The bodies 
of plants do not contain very much protein. Roots, grass, 
hay, and straw have a very small amount of it. On the other 
hand, all plant seeds contain a good deal of this substance. 
What use do the animals make of protein .? Animals form 
their new blood, their muscle, a,nd their lean meat from 
protein food. It is easy, then, to see the value of protein. 

In addition, this substance rebuilds largely the waste 
of the body. This is harder to understand. Every boy, 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 213 

perhaps, has made a snow man, and knows that unless he 
can add new snow regularly, the body of the snow man will 
soon waste away. All animal bodies are daily using up the 
materials of the body. If this waste is not made up, the 
bodies of animals, like the body of the snow man, soon 
waste away. Now, just as the boy in cold climates supplies 
new snow to his snow man's body to keep it whole, so 
nature uses protein to build up the wasted materials of 
animal bodies. 

Let us next consider the carbohydrates. Sometimes the 
words starchy foods are used to describe the carbohydrates. 
You have long known forms of these in the white material 
of corn and of potatoes. The carbohydrates are formed of 
three elements, — carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The 
office of this whole group of food is to furnish to animal 
bodies either heat or energy or to enable them to store fat. 

In the next place, let us look at the fat in plant food. 
This consists of the oil stored up in the seeds and other 
parts of the plant. The grains contain most of the oil. 
Fat is used by the animal to make heat and energy or to 
be stored away in the body. 

The next animal food in the plant that we are to think 
about is the mineral matter. The ashes of a burnt plant fur- 
nish a common example of this mineral matter. The animal 
uses this material in the plant to make bone, teeth, and tissue. 

The last thing that the plant furnishes the animal is 
water, — just common water. Young plants contain com- 
paratively large quantities of water. This is one reason 
why young plants are soft, juicy, and palatable. But, since 
animals get their water chiefly in another way, the water 
in feeding stuffs is not important. 



214 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



What these Compounds do in the Body 



Protein 

1. Builds flesh, bone, blood, 
internal organs, hair, and milk. 

2. It may be used to make fat. 

3. It may be used for heat. 

4. It may be used to produce 

energy. 

Carboliydratcs 

1 . To furnish body heat. 

2. To furnish energy. 

3. To make fat. 



3- 



Fat 

To furnish body heat. 
To furnish energy. 
To furnish body fat. 



Mineral Matter 

To furnish mineral matter for 
the bones in the body. 

Water 
To supply water in the body. 



Average Digestible Nutrients in American 
Feeding Stuffs 







Digestible Nutrients in 




Dry Matter 




100 Pounds 
















100 Pounds 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Corn stover (field cured) . 


59-5 


17 


3-4 


0.7 


Timothy hay . 




S6.8 


2.8 


43-4 


1.4 


Soja bean hay . 








8S.7 


10.8 


3S7 


1-5 


Oat straw . . 








90.8 


1.2 


38.6 


0.8 


Red clover hay 








S4-7 


6.8 


35-8 


17 


Alfalfa hay . . 








91.6 


I I.O 


39-6 


1.2 


Cowpea hay . 








«9-3 


10.8 


38.6 


I.I 


Pea-vine straw 








86. 4 


4-3 


y-i> 


0.8 


Corn ensilage . 








20.9 


0.9 


n-3 


07 


Crab grass . 








S9.3 


2.4 


47.1 


.6 


Cow's milk . 








12.8 


> 3-6 


4.9 


37 


Skimmed milk 








9.6 


31 


47 


0.8 


Buttermilk . . 








9.9 


3-9 


4.0 


I.I 


Oat hay . 








91. 1 


4-3 


46.4 


1-5 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



215 



Average Digestible Nutrients in American 
Feeding Stuffs 



Feeding Stuffs 



Corn 

Corn and cob meal . 
Gluten meal . . . 
Gluten feed . . 

Wheat 

Wheat bran . . . 
Wheat middlings 

kye 

Barley . . . , , 

Oats 

Rice 

Rice hulls ... 
Rice bran ... 
Kaffir corn . . 
Cotton seed 
Cotton-seed meal 
Cotton-seed hulls 
Peanut meal . . 
Soja beans . . . 
Cowpeas , . . 
Linseed meal (new) 
Brewer's grain (dry) 



Dky Matter 

IN 

100 Pounds 



Digestible Nutrients in 
100 Pounds 



89.1 

84.9 
91.8 
92.2 
89.5 

88.1 
87.9 
88.4 
89.1 
89.0 
87.6 
91.8 

90-3 
84.8 

89.7 
91.8 
88.9 

89-3 
89.2 

85.2 

89.9 

91.8 



PRf)TEIN 



7-9 

4.4 

25.8 

20.4 

10.2 

122 

12.8 

9.9 

8.7 

9.2 

4.8 

1.6 

5-3 

7.8 

12.5 

0-3 
42.9 

29.6 

18.3 

28.2 

157 



Carbo- 
hydra iks 



66.7 
60.0 

43-4 
48.4 
69.2 
39-2 

53-0 
67.6 

65.6 

47-3 

72.2 

44-5 
45-1 
57-1 
30.0 
16.9 

22.8 
22.3 
54-2 
40.1 



Y KT 



4-3 
2.9 

1 1. 

8.8 

1-7 

2.7 

3-4 
I.I 
1.6 

4.2 

0-3 
0.6 

1-Z 
2.7 

''l-Z 
12.2 

1-7 
6.9 
14.4 
I.I 
2.8 
51 



c'iiArri":K ix 

FARM DAIRYING 

si'X'TioN MA 11 rill': i).\ii<\ cow 

SiKiwss in (i.iiiy l.iiniinf; drpcMuls laii;cl\' upon propci 
focilini; ol stock. TlKMr .\\c two (|iicstions tiuit thr il.iiry 
l.nincM slioiiKl always ask hinisrll : liisl, Am i locdini; as 
cheaply as 1 caw ? second, Am I UxHlinj; the host rations 
loi milk and InitlcM production? (>1 course cows can he 
kei>t ali\e and m taiil\- i;ootl milk How uj^on man\' dillerent 
kinds ol lood, hul in Icwlini.;, as in e\ei\lhini; else, there 
is an ideal to he sou_i;ht. 

What, then, is an id«.\d ration lor a daiiy cow? Heloie 
tr\ini; to answta this i|uestion, the word /(f//(>// needs to he 
explained. Hviati(Mi is meant a sullicient tiuantityol lood 
to properly suj^poit an animal toi owe daN'. 11 the animal 
is to have a i)roi)ei" lation. we nuisl \k\\v in nuutl what the 
animal needs in order to he hest nomishcnl. To i;et 
material lot muscle, iov hlooil, lor milk, and lor some 
other things, the animal necils. in tlu^ first place, lood that 
contains protein. Vo kix^j) warm, to j;et the necessary 
amount ol iat, etc., the animal must, in the second place, 
have looil containini; carl)ohvdrat(\s antl lats. Those foods 
nuist he mixed in riL;ht pr(^i>ortions. • 

With tlu^se tacts in nuiul we are prepared 1(M- an answer 
to the tpiestion. What is an i(K\d ration? 

2\6 



I-'AKM DAI KYI NC 



217 



I'irst, it is n ration that, without wasti:, ^ivcs both in 
weight and hulk ol (hy mailer a suriicit-nt aniounl ol 
digestible, nutritious lood. 

Second, it is a ration that is comparatively cheap. 

Third, it is a ration in which the mill<-formin«^- (protein) 
food is ri<;htly j)roportion('d to the heat and lat anakin^ 




I'k;. k;,]. Mii.KiNi; Iimk 



((•arl)ohy(h"at(!s and fat) food. Any ration in which tliis 
|)roporlion is neglected is badly balanced. 

Now test one or two coin ni only used ral ions by these iiilcs. 
Would a ration of cottonseed meal and eotton-seecl hulls 
be a model ration ? No. Sik h a rat ion, since; t he seeds are 
j^rown at home, would be; cheap enough. Ilowevei, it is 
badly balanced, loi it is too ricli in proteifj ; hence it is a 
wasteful rat ion. Would a ral ion of corn meal and coin stover 
be a desirable ration .-* 'I'his, loo, since the ( orn is home- 
grown, would be (heap lor the larmer; but like; the other 



2lS 



AGRICULTURK FOR BKGINNERS 



it is Ixklly balanced, tor it contains too much carbohydrate 
food. This excess of fatty focxl makes it also wasteful. 

A badh- balanced raticni tloes harm in two ways : first, 
the milk flow ot the cow is lessened bv such ration ; sectMul, 
the cow does not profitably use the foml that she eats. 

The followini; table Leaves an excellent dairy ration for the 
farmer who has a silo. If he does not have a silo, some 
other food can be usctl in place c>f the ensilage. The table 
also shows what each food contains. As n'ou grow older, it 
will pa\" vou to study such tables most carefully. 





Digestible Matter 


Kkki>\m; Sri'Kis 


Dry 
Mattkk 


Tkotkin 


C A R IU>- 
HYPKATKS 


Fat 


Cowpeu hay = 1 5 pounds . . . 
Coin stover = \o pounds . . . 
C\Mn onsilago = ^0 pounds . 
Cotton sood nu\U J pounds . 


'350 

5-95 
6.27 

1.83 


1 .62 

•>7 
•-7 
•74 


5-70 

3- -4 

3-39 

•33 


.16 

•07 
.21 
.24 


Total = 57 pounds . . . 


27.56 


2.80 


12.75 


.68 



Sond to tho Sociot.irv of .Xgricultuio. \y .ishini;ton. P.C.. for a valu.d^le 
t'voo bulletin on fccdiui; animals. 

Care of the Cow. As the cow is one of the best money- 
makers on the farm, she shmild. iov this reason, it tor no 
other, be comfi>rtably housed, well icd and watered, and 
most kindly treated. In your thoughts for her well-being, 
bear the h^lUnvino- directions in mind: 

1. If Nou are not following a balanced ratii>n. fcctl each 
dav several differei\J: kinds of food. \\\ this way you will 
be most likely not to waste food. 



FARM DAI KYI Nc; 



2I() 



2. I''cc(l III regular hours. Cows, like i)coj)lc, thrive 
best when llieir Hves are oideily. 

3. Milk at rei;iilar hours. 

4. Hrush the udder earelully with a moist cloth helori' 
you l)e_i;in to milk. C'leanliness in handlini; makes the 
nnik keep loni;er. 

5. Always milk in buc^kcis or c\\\)s, th;it ha\'i^ been 
seakled since the hist using. The hot watcM kills the 
haeteria that eolleet in the dents or (M^ud^s of the utcMisil. 




I'lC. I<)l^. |)\IK\ 

6. Never lei the milk pail lemuin in the stable. Milk 
rapidly absorbs imj)urities. 'i'hese spoil the flavor and 
cause the milk to sour. 

7. Never scold nor strike the cow. She is a nervons 
animal, and rough usage c'hecks the milk How. 



220 



ACKKULiUKr; roK i;i:(;iNNKKs 



si-:rri()N xiaiii — mii.k, cm^iiam, (muirning, 
AND juirri^k 

Milk. Milk is, as you know, nature's tirst food for 
nuunnials. This is because milk is a model fooil : it con- 
tains water to slake thirst, ash to make bone, protein to 
make flesh and nuisclc, fat and su^ar to keej) the body 
watni anil to furnish energy. 

The Different Kinds of Milk, (i) Whole, or unskimmed, 
milk, (j) skimmed milk, (3) buttermilk, are too familiar 
to need tlcscription. When the cow is just fresh, milk is 
called colostrum. This colostium is rich in the very food 
that the baby calf needs. Alter the calf is a few days old, 
ct)lostrum chani;es to what is connnonl)' known as milk. 

The followini; table shows the composition of each of 
the dilfercMU forms of milk. 





DiGBSTiDLB l\I.\i riK IN 1.10 Pounds 


Ci'MrosnioN oi' Mu.k 


Dnv 

^r\ II IK 

1 j.S 
9.9 


I'KOIKIN 


Oakho- 

HYUKATUS 


Fat 


("olostruin 

Milk (unskiniimil) 

Skituniod milk 

Hultetmilk 


.7.(> 
J-9 


-■7 

5- 
4.0 


;v6 

••3 
1.1 



A noticeable fact in this table is that skimmed milk 
differs from unskimmed mainly in the withdrawal of the 
fat. Hence, if calves are fed on skimmed milk, some food, 
like corn meal, should be i;iven them to take the place of 
the fat withdrawn. The calf canni)t thrive on skimmed 



FARM DAIRYING 



221 



milk alone. The amount of nourishing fat that a calf gets 
out of enough milk to make a pound of butter can be 
bought, in the form of linseed or corn meal, for one or 
two cents, while the butter fat is worth, for table use, 
twenty-five cents. Of course, then, it is not economical 
to allow calves to use unskimmed milk. Some people 
undervalue skimmed milk ; with the addition of some fatty 
food, it makes an excellent ration for calves, pigs, and fowls. 




Fig. 196. Sunning the Cans 

Cream. Cream is simply a mixture of butter fat and 
milk. The butter fat floats in the milk in little globe- 
shaped bodies, or globules. Since these globules are lighter 
than milk, they rise to the surface. Skimming the milk 
is a mere gathering together of these butter fat globules. 
As most of the butter fat is contained in the cream, pains 
should be taken to get all the cream from the milk. 



222 



AGRICULTURE FOR RKU.INNERS 



After the cream has l)een collected, it must be allowed 
" to ripen " or " to sour " in order that it may be more easily 
churned. Churning;- is only a second step to collect in a 
compact sliape the fat .<;l()l)u]es. It often happens that at 




\ 



Fic. 197. A Hand vSki'arator 

churning time the cream is too warm for successful sepa- 
ration of the globules. Wlienever tliis is the case, the 
cream must be cooled. 

The Churn. Revolving churns without inside fixtures 
are best. Hence, in buying, select a barrel or a square 



FARM DAIRYING 



223 



box churn. Tliis kind of cliiirn " l)rini;s the butter" by 
the fiiUing of tlie cream from side to side as the churn is 
revolved. Never fdl the churn more than one tliird or one 
half full of cicam. A small churn is always to be avoided. 

Churning. The proper temperature for churning ranges 
from 58"^ to 62° I^'ahrenheit. Test the cream when it is 
put into the churn. If 
it be too cold, add warm 
water until the |)ro|)er 
tem])er:itiire is reached ; 
if too warm, add cold 
water or ice until the 
temperature is brought 
down to 62°. Do not 
churn too long, l(jr this 
spoils butter. As soon 
as the granules of butter 
are somewhat smaller 
than grains of wheat, 
stop the churn. Then 
diaw off the buttermilk, 
and at a temi)erature as 
low as 50'' wash the but- 
ter in the churn. This 

washing with cold water so hardens the granules that 
they do not mass too solidly and thus destroy the grain. 

Butter. The butter thus c:hurned is now ready to be 
salted. Use good, hue dairy salt. Coarse barrel salt is 
not fit for butter. The salt can be added while tlic butter 
is still in the churn or after it is i)ut upon the; butter-worker. 
Never work by hand. The object of working is to get the 




l''l(;. I<;.S. A I'oWI'K rnuKN 



224 



ACRICULTUKI-: FOR HKCilNNKkS 



salt evenly distributed and to drive out some of the brine. 
It is usually best to work butter twice. The two work- 
ings bring about a more even mixture of tlie salt and 
drive off more water. 15ut one cannot be too i)articular 
not to overwork butter. Delicate coloring, attractive 
stami)ing, and proper covering with paper cost little, and 
ol course add to the ready and profitable sale of butter. 




b'lC. ly)(). SlI.O AND II I'Kl) 



Da1K\ Ru IJ'.S 

T//r Sf(i/>/(' <jf!(f Coius 

1. Whitewash the stable once or (wic e each year ; use land plaster, 
muck, or loam daily in the manure i^utters. 

2. On their way to pasture or milkint; place, do not allow the rows 
to he driven at a faster gait than a comfortable walk. 

3. (live abundance of pure water. 

4. Do not change feed suddenly. 

5. Keep salt always within reach of each cow. 

Mi/king 

1. Milk with dry hands. 

2. Never allow the milk to touch the milker's hands. 

3. Ke(|uire the milker to be clean in person. 

4. Milk (juietly, cpiickly, thoroutj^hly. Never leave a drop of milk 
in the cow's udder. 

5. Do not allow cats, dogs, or other animals around at milking time. 



FARM DAIRYING 225 

The Utensils 

1 . Use only tin or metal cans and pails. 

2. See that all utensils are scrupulously clean and free from rust. 

3. Require all cans and pails to be scalded immediately after they 
are used. 

4. After milking, keep utensils inverted in pure air, and sun them, 
if possible, until wanted for use. 

5. Always sterilize the churn with steam or boiling water before 
and after churning. This prevents any odors or bad flavors from 
affecting the butter. 

SECTION XLIX— HOW MILK SOURS 

On another page I have told you how the yeast plant 
grows in cider and causes it to sour, and how bacteria 
sometimes cause disease in animals and plants. Now I 






o 
o 

o' 






V_/ O o "-' ^ O O /^ • ^ ^. 

"° oO 0^0 o» U ^^, - 







° oOO " O o O ' -^ " ^° 



u 



Fig. 200. Microscopic Appearance of Pure and Impure Milk 

First, pure milk ; second, milk after standing in a warm room for a few hours in a 
dirty dish, showing, besides the fat globules, many forms of bacteria 

want to tell you what these same living forms have to do 
with the souring of milk, and maybe I can also suggest 
how you can prevent your milk from souring. In the first 



226 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

place, milk sours because bacteria from the air fall into the 
milk, begin to grow, and very shortly change the sugar of 
the milk to an acid. When this acid becomes abundant, 
the milk begins to curdle. As I have said, the bacteria 
are in the air, in water, in barn dust ; they stick on bits of 
hay and to the cow. They are most plentiful, however, in 
milk that has soured ; hence, if we pour a little sour milk into 
a pail of fresh milk, the fresh milk will sour very quickly, 
because we have, so to speak, "seeded " or "planted" the 
fresh milk with the souring germs. No one, of course, 
ever does this purposely in the dairy, yet people some- 
times do what amounts to the same thing, — that is, put 
fresh milk into poorly cleaned pails or pans, the cracks 
and corners of which are cosy homes for millions of germs 
left from the last sour milk contained in the vessel. It 
follows, then, that all utensils used in the dairy should be 
thoroughly scalded so as to kill all germs present, and 
particular care should be taken to clean the cracks and 
crevices, for in them the germs lurk. 

In addition to this thorough cleansing with hot water, 
we should be careful never to stir up the dust of the barn 
just before milking. Such dusty work as pitching hay or 
stover or arranging bedding should be done either long 
before or after milking time, for more germs fall into the 
milk if the air be full of dust. 

To further avoid germs, the milker should wear clean 
overalls, should have clean hands, and above all should 
never wet his hands with milk. , This last habit, in addi- 
tion to being filthy, lessens the keeping power of the milk. 
The milker should also moisten the parts of the cow nearest 
him, so that dust from the cow's sides may not fall into 



FARM DAIRYING 227 

the milker's pail. For greater cleanliness and safety many 
milkmen curry their cows. 

The first few streams from each teat should be thrown 
away, because the teat at its mouth is filled with milk 
which, being exposed to the air, is full of germs, and will 
do much toward souring the other milk in the pail. Barely 
a gill will be lost by throwing the first drawings away, and 
this of the poorest milk too. The increase in the keeping 
quality of the milk will much more than repay the small 
loss. If these precautions are taken, the milk will keep sev- 
eral hours or even days longer than milk carelessly handled. 
By taking these steps to prevent germs from falling into the 
milk, a can of milk was once kept sweet for thirty-one days. 

The work of the germ in the dairy is not, however, con- 
fined to souring the milk. It is the germ that gives to the 
different kinds of cheeses their characteristic flavors and to 
the butter its flavor. If the right germ is present, cheese 
or butter gets a proper flavor. Sometimes undesirable 
germs gain entrance and give flavors that we do not like. 
Such germs produce cheese or butter diseases. " Bitter 
butter" is one of these diseases. To keep out all unpleas- 
ant meddlers, thoroughly cleanse and scald every utensil. 

EXERCISE 

What causes milk to sour? Why do unclean utensils affect the 
milk? How should milk be cared for to prevent its souring? 
Prepare two samples, one carefully, the other carelessly. Place them 
side l^y side. Which keeps longer ? Wliy ? Write to the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for Farmers' Bulletin, No. 63, on " Care of Milk 
on the Farm." 



228 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

SECTION E — GROWING FEEDING STUFFS ON 

THl^: FARM 

Economy in raising live stock demands the production of 
all "roughness" or roughage materials on the farm. By 
roughness, or roughage, of course you understand bulky 
food, like hay, grass, clover, stover, etc. It is possible to 
purchase all roughage materials and yet make a financial 
success of growing farm animals, but this certainly is not 
the surest way to succeed. Every farm should raise all its 
feed stuff. In deciding what forage and grain crops to 
grow we should decide upon : 

1. The crops best suited to our soil and climate. 

2. The crops best suited to our line of business. 

3. The crops that will give us most protein. 

4. The croj:)s that produce the most. 

5. The crops that will keep our soil in best condition. 

I. Crops best suited to our soil and climate. Farm 
crops, as every child of the farm knows, are not equally 
adapted to all soils and climates. Cotton cannot be pro- 
duced where the climate is cool and the seasons short. 
Timothy and blue grass are most productive on cool, lime- 
stone soils. Cowpeas demand warm, dry soils. But in 
spite of climatic limitations, nature has been generous in 
the wide variety of forage she has given us. If we do 
our part, there will be rjo difficulty in providing all the 
roughage material necessary_for the successful rearing of 
live stock. 

Our aim should be to make the best use of what we have, 
to improve by selection and care those species best adapted 



FARM DAIRYING 



229 



to our soil and climate, and by better methods ot growing 
and curing to secure greatest yields at least possible cost. 

2. Crops best suited to our line of btcsiness. A farmer 
necessarily becomes a specialist : he gathers those kinds 
of live stock about him which he likes best and which he 
finds most profitable. He should, in carrying on his busi- 
ness, do the same with crops. 

The successful railroad manager determines by practical 
experience what distances his engines and crews ought to 




Fig. 201. Feeding Time 



run in a day, what coal is most economical for his engines, 
what schedules best suit the needs of his road, what trains 
pay him best. These and a thousand and one other matters 
are settled by the special needs of his road. 

Ought the man who wants to make his farm pay be less 
prudent and less far-sighted } Ought he not to know his 
farm as the railroad manager knows his road ? Should not 



230 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

his past failures and his past triumphs decide his future ? 
If he be a dairy farmer, ought he not by practical tests to 
settle for himself not only what crops arc most at home 
on his land but also what crops in his circumstances yield 
him the largest returns in milk and butter ? If swine rais- 
ing be his business, how long ought he to guess what crop 
on his land yields him the greatest amount of hog food ? 
Should a colt be fed on one kind of forage w^hen the land 
that produced that forage would produce twice as much 
equally good forage of another kind ? All these questions 
the prudent farmer should answer promptly and in the light 
of wise experiments. 

3. Crops tJiat zvill o-27r us viost protein. It is the 
farmer's business to grow all the grass and forage that his 
farm animals need. He ought never to be ol:)liged to pur- 
chase a bale of forage. Moreover, he should grow mainly 
those kinds of crops that are rich in protein materials, such 
for example as cowpeas, alfalfa, and clover. If these kinds 
of crops are produced on the farm, there will be little need 
of buying cotton-seed meal, corn, and bran, for feeding 
purposes. 

4. Crops tJiat produce tJie most. We often call a crop 
a crop without considering how much it yields. This is 
a mistake. We ought to grow, when we have choice of 
two, the one that is the best and most productive. Corn, 
for instance, yields at least twice the quantity of feeding- 
material an acre that timothy does, 

5. Crops that will keep our soil in best cojidition. A 
good farmer should always be thinking of improving his 
soil. He wants his land to support him, and to maintain 
his children after he is dead. 






o 



o 
o 

> 



> 
o 

a 

w 

CO 

d 

?« 

O 
H 
W 
O 
H 
W 
U 




231 



232 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

Since cowpeas, clover, and alfalfa add atmospheric nitro- 
gen to the soil and at the same time are the best feeding 
materials, it follows that these crops should hold an impor- 
tant place in every system of crop rotation. By proper 
rotating, by proper terracing, and by proper drainage, land 
may be made to retain its fertility for generations. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are cowpeas, clover, and alfalfa so important to the farmer.? 

2. What is meant by the protein of a food 1 

3. Why is it better to feed farm crops on the farm to animals 
rather than sell these crops ? 



SECTION LI — FARM TOOLS AND MACHINES 

The drudgery of farm life is diminished in a large meas- 
ure by the constant invention or improvement of farm 
tools and machines. You each know, perhaps, how tire- 
some is the old up-and-down churn dasher that has now 
pretty generally given place to the "quick coming" 
churns. The toothed, horse-drawn cultivator has about 
displaced " the man with the hoe." The grass sickle, 
slow and back-breaking, is everywhere getting out of the 
way of the horse mower and rake. The old heavy, sweat- 
drawing grain cradle is slinking into the backwoods, and 
in its place we have the horse, or steam-drawn harvester 
that cuts and binds the grain, and even threshes and 
measures it at one operation. Instead of the plowman 
wearily making one furrow at a time, the gang plows 
of the plains cut many furrows at one time, and instead 




Fig. 204. The Harvester at Work 




Fig. 205. In Need of Improvement 



233 



234 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

of walking the plowman rides. The shredder and husker 
turns the hitherto useless cornstalk into savory food, and 
at the same time husks, or shucks, the corn. 

The farmer of the future must know three things well : 
first, what machines he can profitably use ; second, how 
to manage these machines ; third, how to care for these 
machines. 

This machinery that makes farming so much more eco- 
nomical, and that makes the farmer's life so much easier 
and more comfortable, is too complicated to be put into 
the hands of bunglers who will soon destroy it, and it is too 
costly to be left in the fields or under trees to rust and rot. 

If it is not convenient for every farmer to have a separate 
tool house, he should at least set apart a room in his barn 
or a shed for storing his tools and machines. As soon as a 
plow, harrow, cultivator — indeed any tool or machine — has 
finished its share of work for the season, it should receive 
whatever attention it needs to prevent rusting, and be 
carefully housed. 

Such care, which is neither costly nor burdensome, will 
add many years to the life of the machine. 

SECTION LII— BIRDS 

What do birds do in the world ? is an important ques- 
tion for us to think about. First, we must gain by obser- 
vation and by personal acquaintance with the living birds a 
knowledge of their work and their way of doing it. In 
getting this knowledge, let us also consider what we can 
do for our birds to render their work as .complete and 
effective as possible. 



FARM DAIRYING 



235 



Think of what the birds are doing on every farm, in 
every garden, and about every home in the land. Think 
of the milUons of beautiful wings, of the graceful and 
attractive figures, of the cunning nests, and of the singing 
throats ! Do you think that the whole service of the birds 
is to be beautiful, to sing beautifully, and to rear their 
little ones ? By no means 
is this their chief service to 
man. Aside from these 
values, their greatest work 
is to destroy insects. It is 
one of the wise provisions of 
nature that many of the most 
brilliantly winged and the 
most enchanting songsters 
are our most practical friends. 

Not all birds feed upon 
insects and animals ; but 
even those that eat but a 
small amount of insect food 
may still destroy insects 
that would have damaged 
fruit and crops much more than the birds themselves do. 

As to their food, birds are divided into three general 
classes. First, those that live wholly or almost wholly 
upon insects. These are called insectivorous birds. Chief 
among these are the warblers, cuckoos, swallows, martins, 
flycatchers, night hawks, whippoorwills, swifts, and hum- 
ming birds. We cannot have too many of these birds. 
They should be encouraged and protected. They should 
be supplied with shelter and water. 




Fig. 206. A Kingbird 



236 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

Birds of the second class feed by preference upon fruits, 
nuts, and grain, — the bkiebird, robin, wood thrush, mock- 
ing bird, catbird, chickadee, cedar bird, meadow lark, oriole, 
jay, crow, and woodpecker belong to this group. Those 
that winter with us — the chickadee, nuthatch, brown 
creeper, and woodpecker — perform a service for us b)' 
devouring many weed seeds. 

The third class is known as hard-billed birds. It 
includes those birds that live principally upon seeds and 
grain, — the canary, goldfinch, sparrows, and some others. 

Birds that come early, like the bluebird, robin, and red- 
wing, are of special service in destroying insects before 
the insects lay their eggs for the season. 

The robins on the lawn search out the caterpillars and 
cutworms. The chipping sparrow and the wren in the 
shrubbery look out for all kinds of insects. They watch 
over the orchard and feed freely upon the enemies of the 
apple and other fruit trees. The trunks of these trees are 
often attacked by borers, which gnaw holes in the bark and 
wood, and often cause the death of the trees. The wood- 
peckers hunt for these appetizing borers and by means of 
their barbed tongues bring them from their hiding places. 
On the outside of the bark of the trunk and branches the 
bark lice work. These are devoured by the nuthatches, 
creepers, and chickadees. 

In winter, the bark is the hiding place for hibernating 
insects, like plant lice, which in summer feed upon the 
leaves. Throughout the winder a single chickadee will 
destroy immense numbers of the eggs of the cankerworm 
moth and the plant louse. The blackbirds; meadow larks, 
crows, quail, and sparrows are the great protectors of the 



FARM DAIRYING 



237 



meadow and field crops. These lairds feed upon tlie army 
worms and cutworms that do so much injury to the younf^ 
shoots ; they also destroy the chinch bu^; and the grass- 
hopper, both of which feed upon cultivated plants. 

A count of all the different kinds of animals shows tluit 
insects make up nine tenths of the animals. Hence it is 
easy to see that if something did not check their increase 
they would soon 
almost take the earth. 
Our forests and or- 
chards furnish homes 
and breeding places 

for most of these ^ ^■^^fSHBkX""^- 

insects. Suppose the 

injurious insects were 

allowed to multiply 

unchecked in these 

forests, their numbers 

would so increase that 

they would invade our 

fields and create as _ 




Fig. 



A Warhler 



much terror among 
the farmers as they did in Pharaoh's Egypt. The birds 
are the only direct friends man has to destroy these harm- 
ful insects. What benefactors, then, these little feathered 
neighbors are ! 

It has been estimated that a bird will devour thirty 
insects daily. Even in a widely extended forest region 
a very few birds to the acre, if they kept up this rate, 
would daily destroy many bushels of insects that would 
play havoc with neighboring orchards and fields. 



238 



A(;KlLULTUkl': I'OR liJ:cJlNNl>:RS 



Do not imai;inc, liowewr, tliat to destroy insects is the 
only use of birds, l^y care we tan surround ourselves with 
a world of birds, sweet of S()n<; and brilliant of plumage. 
Surely the day is more charmingly sjient when the birds 
sing, and when they (hi in and out, giving us a glimpse 

now and then oi 







their pretty coats 
and quaint ways. 

If the birds felt 
that m an was a 
friend and not a foe, 
they would often 
turn to him for j)r()- 
tection. D u ring 
times of severe 
storm, extreme 
drought, scarcity of 
food, if the birds 
were sufficiently 
tamed to come to 
man as their friend as they do in rare (\ises now, a little 
food and shelter might tide them over the hard time and 
their service afterward would repay the outlay a thousand- 
fold. If the boys in your families would build bird houses 
about the house and barn and in shade trees, they might 
save yearly a great number of birds. In building these 
places of shelter and comfort, due care must be taken to 
keep them clear of luiglish sparrows and out of the reach 
of cats and bird dogs. ^ 

Whatever we do to attract the birds to make homes on 
the premises must be done at the right time and in the 



FlC. 20S. 'rUl'. HaIKY WooDl'KCKKR 



FARM DAIRYING 



239 



right way. We must know what materials to provide for 
them. Bits of string, linen, cotton, yarn, tow, all help to 
induce a pair to build in the garden. 

It is an interesting study, — the preparation of homes 
for the birds. Trees may be pruned to make inviting 
crotches. A tangled, overgrown corner in the garden will 
invite some birds to nest. 

Wrens, bluebirds, chickadees, martins, and some other 
varieties are all glad to set up housekeeping in man-made 
houses. The proper size for a bird room is easily remem- 
bered. Give each room six square inches of floor space 





WL 1^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ XI It 






"Wtt^^w^/k — 1 1 





Fig. 209. Protecting our Friends 
From Hodge's " Nature Study and Life," Ginn & Company 

and make it eight inches high. Old, weathered boards 
should be used; or, if paint is employed, a dull color to 
resemble an old tree trunk will be most inviting. A 
single opening near the top should be made two inches 



240 acrkiu/ii'kl: for hkcinnkrs 

in iliamctcr iov {\\c hiri^or birds; l>ul il ihc house is to he 
lK\uK|iiarl».M s lor \hc wvcn, a one-ineli oponiui; is ciuite lari;o 
enoiiL;h aiul the small iloor scrxes .ill the hctlor to keep 
oul lMii;"hsl\ span\>\\s. 

The barn at lie sliouKl he turned over to the swallows. 
Sni.dl holes nia\' he lait hii^h up in the ^ahles .md lelt oi>en 
durini; the time that the swallows remain with us. Tiiey 
will more than \k\\ \ov sheltca' hv the i;"ood work tiiey do 
in litldiuL!, the h.un ol llies, i;n.its, and moscpiitoes. 

six^rioN 1,111 lii-i-: IN rill': c\)UNrRv 

As ours is a eountrv in whieh the people rule, every 
hov and (.'\cM\- i;irl ouL;ht to 1h> tr. lined [o take a wide-awake 
interest in puhlie alTairs. 'Idiis tr.iiniui; c\innot hei;in too 
earl\' in lile. A wise i^ld man onee said. *• In a repuhlie 
vou oui;hl to bi\i;in to train a ehild lor i:^o()d eiti/enship 
on the (hw ol its hirth." 

Il.ipjn would il he lor our nati(M\ il all the \ouni;" people 
who li\e in the eountiy eoulil l>ei;in their traininj;" in good 
cilizenshii> hv heeomim;- wcnkers lor these tour things: 

h'irst, attraetixe cHuintrx' homes. 

Seeond. altr.ietixe i\nintrx' seluu^lhouses and grounds. 

Third, i^^ood epuntrx' sehools. 

l'\nirth. gooil roads. 

11 the thousands upon thousands of pupils in our sehools 
woukl heeome aetixe xviMkers for these things, and ecMi- 
tinue their xvork through lifc^ then, in less than half a cen- 
turv, life in the eountrv xvouUl W^ an unending ilelight. 

C'^ne ot the iM"ohlems ol our d.ix' is how t'o keep bright, 
thouiihtful, soeiable, .imbiiious box s and i-irls eontented on 



r3 




■xJi 



fa 



Fig. 210. Hkautv \<\h)ni I'"j,<;vvkks ani> (.jIrass 




Fk;. 211. A Mi'.cKM'.N liUKt; ("(hin'iv, Noinii Cakoi.ina, 
Country I\<»ai) 

l-'rom a photograph furnislicd by the; United States Dcpartnienl of Agrifiilture 



241 



242 ACKICl'I.rUKI': POK IU-.CINNI'.KS 

llic l^iiiii. lOvciy s\v\) t;ik("ii to in;ikr llic country home 
more iiltnictivc, lo m;ikr llu' school ;iii(l ils /^loimds more 
cMijoyahlc, lo m;ikc the vv;iy easy to homes ol neij^hhors, 
to schook to |)ost oKice, to chiiK h, is ;i ste|) taken towards 
keepini; on tlie hum llie xciy ho)s iuid ^iiis who are 
most a|)t to succeed thi-ic. 

Not ex'ciy man who Hves in the count ly can lia\'e a 
sliowy or costly iiome, hut as Ioiil; as ^I'ass ainl (lowers 
and \ines and trees i;i()w, any man who wishes can have 
an inxit in;; look mi; house. Not e\ta)' woman who is to 
s|)end a lih'time at tlu" head ol a ruial home can ha\'e a 
luxuriously Imnished home, hut an\' woman who is willin<;" 
to take a little trouhle can ha\e a vo/y, tastelull\' fur- 
nished home, a home htlt'd with the eonx'cnicnces that 
diminish houst-hold diud^ery. luen in this day ol ehea|» 
litt'i at ure, all panaits cannot lill their children's home with 
papeis, maL;a/iiies, and hooks, hut h)' means ol school 
and Sunda)' school lihraiies, 1)\' lut'ans ol circulatiiiL; hook 
cluhs, and hy a little sell denial, eainest ])arents can Iced 
Iuuil;!)' minds just as they Iced huui^ry hodies. 

AL;riculluial papers that arouse the interest and (|uicken 
the thou_i;ht ol hum hoys 1))' discussiui; the hest , easiest, 
and iheapesl \va\s of huniim; ; journals full of dainty 
sui;"i;c'st ions h>r household adormnent and comlort ; illus- 
trated j)apias and magazines that amusi^ and hii^hten 
ex'eiy nuMuher ol tlu' lamil\'; hooks that i est tiicd hodies, 

all of these ai'c so cheap that tlu' mone\' reserx'ed Irom 
the sale of one ho*; will keep a lamih' fairl\' supijlit'd 
lor a \i'ai'. 

It the pai'cnts, teachers, and j)Upils ol a school join 
hanils, Lui unsightly, ill-lurnishcd, ill-liL;hli'd, ill-ventilated 




243 



-•44 



A(iKI( HI IDKI'. l't»K III (ilNNI KS 



sihixillxmsc cm .il sm.ill cnsl l>c » h.mjM'tl inio om- nl (oiii 
loll .iiul hc.iiih III iii.iiiN pl.ucs |)ii|)ils li.i\c |u-i sii.iilfd lluii 



liil 



^' 



"'■ 'h 






..OTfil, 



'^:xf^^#'- 












^^ * ** l f^ W I'>flHlj|H^y^<. 



','^', ■■ MW 



41|s 



.r,T,"v«6'-* 

I'u;, .'i; An I' ni Mi'miv p i> Sciiooiiiiuisk 

p.lUMll s lo loi III ( llll>S lt» IxMUtll \ (III- Si lioi »1 ;;nniiiils, I'.ii h 
l.itlu'i s«iuls .1 111. Ill ni .1 III. Ill Willi .1 plow, oiui' oi Iwui" .1 
\rA\ lo woik .1 (I. IN on llif ;'.i omul;.. ."'^Iiimits .ii(> irmovt'il, 
tu't'.s II iimiu'il, (li.iiii:. |Mil III, _;; i.iss sown, llowcis. sin iiMici \', 



J^m, 



^fcj«^ 



■•■31 . ^ 



\')Kw''^^^^. 



'';.''> . 



'ip'^'Hr' 



,,^».^|l;V 



'4'*;. , 



S^j^m^)'^ ' 



.,^^ 



■■ '^M' 



^(if 



\ 

l'"Ui, .'I |. .\N I MrKj^iVI'.U S< ll>M.| llol'SK 

\'ilK*.s, .iiuj lu'i's |tl.intitl, .iiiil llu" :',i omuls ,t.isl("liill\ l.iiti 
i>H rims .il sr.iutl\ iioIuamMi' nioiu'\' rosl .i ioii:'.li .iiul 




KKJ, 215. 'I'lIK SaMK KoAI) AKIKK ANIi UU.lUtHK ImI'KoVKMKNT 

I M.iii |ilii.fi.)'i,i|.lr, liiMiiJiiil |,v 111!' 1,'iillcrl '.>\;t\i--. I )'|i,itliiii/it III A^;il' iilliKc 



215 



J4<> ACKK HI riii';i' iok iui.inniks 



'inKcmpI ;.( Ii(»(.| ;;t(Mtli(l ;;i\c;; |»|.|<C |(>;i ( li.i i 1 1 1 ii i;- (,illl|UIS. 
<.tlllH'| llic |Ml|i||'. Ill cvciN ;,(|i(»i(| III will. Ii llir, Ixink Js 
Slllilicd ;'(| ilicil |i.iHlil', |() lollll MK ll ,l (lllh. .iliil in.lkc 
lli»'li .'.«lin(»| ••Ktiiiid .1 mI( III Ic.kIki (i| lie. il lie:.;; ,iihI 

I MM III \ ;' 

I lit" III IIh" coiiiiln will iKWfi lie ;is .ill i;i( I !\'(' iis it 
<»ll;;lll l<» lie iiiilil .ill llic MM«|', .IK" im|t| t>\ cd. W'lnlci 
w.islu'd in.id'., pciiiiiii" \<tiin!; |)cn|»lc m ihcii own litunc;; 

lol lll.|||\ lllolllll'. (-.1(1) V<'-ll •Hill < l<"'l I • )\ tliv ■.(» Ill.ll)\' ()| 

llic iiiiKx (III j>l(-.iMii(':; ()| \(iiill), ImiiM Iowii:, .iikI ( iIkn otil 
«»l llic W'i('(k t>l r<>iiiili\ Ikiiiic. ( .III \(Miii;; |K(t|tN' who 
l(»\(' llu'ii ((>iiiili\ .111(1 llicii ((»iiiili\ lioincs en.",.!!;*' in .i 
noldci (ins.itic lli.m .i ( i iin.kIc Ioi iiii| >i o\ cd hiidiw.iys? 



AIMM'.NDIX 



si*i^AYHN(; iviixrnm<;s 

KOK nniN*. iNSicc'i's 

|)|(V I'AKI'i (iul'.I'lN VVl'.r I'Ald'i (ild'.l'.N 

I'ariH ^rctMi ... i lli I'.n !•. jMr. n <, ||, 

I .illir III lloill Ml lo i,<i lli't. I ,11111- ', l<( ' , III. 

VV.ihi .... 1,1 1 |.',.il;». 
KOK SOI r IIODII'I) MM KIN<. INSICC'IS 

Kk.kosi'INI'; I' mdi mon 

II. ltd •,i),i|) (III liiir ,li,( viii;.',:) ) ^j Il». 

W.ilci . . I yA\, 

KcMi'.riic .', |.'_,ll't. 

|)iss<ilv<- Mi.iii ill Imililif, vv.ilfl, .nlfj l.fi oMMM* Id llir liol w.iln, 
('liiil'ii willi '.|ii .1 yiii;', |)iiiii|i iiiilil llic iiii.Kliiii' ( li.iii|M'') lo .1 I K .iiiiy, 
I III II In ,1 Mill, lull l( I lil. I- III,!'/, I his /.', i vcs till CM* |.'_;illr)ir, <il 1 1( > jx i < nil 
oil rliinl'.ioii wliii li lii.iy lie (llldhd Id llir ',1 1 Cli;.', I ll (|c,',ilr(|. lo yv\ 

I'; |ii-i I (III oil rijjiil'.ioii .ii|(l I'll .iimI iiiM li.ill /'.illoii', vv.ili-r, 

I'M'! ll'.N'.orS DI.SK.A.SICM 
Coi'lTK ;illl,l'll A 11'; 

( "o|l|)l I Mll|lll.l l< ill). 

W.I I" I \y, lo /', y-^\^- 

Use only Im Ion |«>li,i!M' o)m ir, lo l.ill wiiih llli!' '.|)Ol<"fS, 

I'.oKDj' Ai),\ IVIi,\'n;i<i', 

( 'o|)pi| Mll|)ll,lll- I, Ihs, 

Kimc (^oo<l .iii'l iin.l.M l.< <l ) ', lliH, 

Wilier .... i,o ;^,iIh, 



DIRECTIONS FOR SPRAYING 



Apple, Pear, and Quince. — 

Scab, codling moth, tent 
caterpillar, canker-worm. 

Bean. — Leaf blight and 
spots. 



Cabbage, Cauliflower, etc. 
— Lice and worm. 



Carnation. — Rust and 
other diseases. 



Celery. — Blights and 
spots. 



Cherry. — Rot. 



Cucumber, Squash, and 
Melon. — Mildew and 
beetle. 



Grape. — Mildew, an- 
thracnose, black rot, etc. 

Nursery Stock. — Fungous 
diseases. 



Peach and Plum. — Rot, 
mildew, and curl. 



Potato. — Early and late 
blight and bug. 



Grain. — Smuts. 



I'lRST 



Before buds swell, cop- 
per sulphate. 



When second leaf 
opens, Bordeaux 
Mixture. 

As often as needed till 
plants begin to head, 
kerosene emulsion. 

As needed, copper sul- 
phate, I lb. to 25 gals. 
every 8 to 14 days. 

Begin in seed lied, Bor- 
deaux Mixture, 8 to 
14 days, or often 
enough to keep foli- 
age covered. 

As buds break, Bor- 
deaux Mixture. 

()ftcn enough to keej) 
foliage covered, Bor- 
deaux-Baris-green 
mixture. 

When buds swell, Bor- 
deaux Mixture. 

When leaves appear, 
B o r d e a u X - P a r i s 
green mixture, repeat 
every 10 to 14 days. 

Before foliage, copper 
sulphate, i lb. to 25 
gals. 

When two thirds grown, 
Bordeaux Mixture. 



See text. 



SKCONI) 



Immediately before 
blossoms open, Bor- 
deaux Mixture. 

10 to 14 days later, 
Bordeaux Mixture. 



Bordeaux Mixture. 



Just before flowers 
open, Bordeaux- 
Paris-green mixture. 



Before blossoms open, 
weak Bordeaux Mix- 
ture. 

Repeat Bordeaux Mix- 
ture every two or 
three weeks; add 
Paris green, when 
needed, for bugs. 



248 



Send to your Experiment Station for 



DIRECTIONS FOR SPRAYING 



THIRD 



Immediately after l)lo.s- 
soms fall, liordeaux- 
Paris-green mixture. 

10 to 14 days later, Bor- 
deaux Mixture. 



When fruit is grown, 
ammoniacal copper 
carbonate. 



When fruit sets, Bor- 
deaux- l^aris-green 
mixture. 



FOURTH 



8 to 14 days later, Bor- 
deaux- I'aris-green 
mixture. 

Repeat Bordeaux Mix- 
ture when needed. 



As fruit enlarges, am- 
moniacal copper car- 
bonate. 



After blossoms open, 1 As fruit enlarges, am- 
weak Bordeaux Mix- moniacal coi)per car- 
ture. bonate. 



REMARKS 

For scale, see text ; for 
fire blight and canker, 
cut and burn; add 
Paris green when 
needed for canker- 
worms. 



For the worm, use dry 
Paris green with lime 
or flour, I oz. to 6 lbs. 
Do not use after 
plants begin to head. 



For lice, kerosene emul- 
sion ; for black knot, 
cut and burn. 



For plant lice, kerosene 
emulsion ; for scale, 
see text. 



For curculio and for 
scale, see text. 



For scab, soak seed 
potatoes before cut- 
ting for two hours in 
formalin, 8 oz. to 15 
gals. 



more detailed directions ior treatment. 



249 



250 AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 

Dissolve the copper sulphate (bluestone) in twenty-five gallons of 
water. Slack the lime slowly so as to get a smooth, thick cream. 
After thorough slacking, add twenty-five gallons of water. When 
lime and bluestone are dissolved, ])our rapidly together and mix 
thoroughly. Strain through a coarse cloth. 

Mix fresh for each time. Use for molds and fungi generally. 
Apply in fine spray with a good nozzle. 

Weak Bordeaux Mixture for Peaches, Plums, and 
Cherries in Foliage 

Mix as above, but in the following proportions: 

Copper sulphate 2)4 lbs. 

Lime 2)4 lbs. 

Water 50 gals. 

IiORDEAUx-PARis-(iiU':i:N Mlxiuri-: 

Ordinary Bordeaux Mixture 50 gals. 

Paris green 4 oz. 

Use for both fungi and insects on apple, potato, etc. 

Ammoniacal CorPER Carronate 

Copper carbonate 5 oz. 

Ammonia (26° Baum^) about 3 pts. 

Water 50 gals. 

Dissolve the copper carbonate in smallest possible amount of 
ammonia. This solution may be kept in stock and diluted to 
proper strength as needed. 

Use this instead of the Bordeaux Mixture after the fruit has 
reached half or two thirds of the mature size. It leaves no spots 
as does the Bordeaux. 

COST OF SPRAYING 

Sulphate of copper costs about ten to fifteen cents a pound. 
Formalin may be bought from seventy-five to ninety cents a pound. 
You can make the Bordeaux Mixture at a cost of ^ little less than 
one cent a gallon. 



APPENDIX 251 

Spraying potatoes costs from tliree and one half to seven dollars an 
acre. The cost depends upon the numl)er of applications and the 
amount of foliage to be covered. 

Fruit trees fully grown may be sprayed for from six to twenty cents 
a season. This includes the cost of labor. 



FERTILIZER FORMULAS FOR CORN, COTTON, AND TOBACCO 

(These formulas were kindly furnished by Director 15. \V. Kilgore of the North 
Carolina Experiment vStation.) 

Fertilizers for Corn. — For average conditions a fertilizer contain- 
ing 7 per cent available phosphoric acid, i yi per cent of potash, and 
3 per cent of nitrogen is well suited to corn. The following mixtures 
furnish these materials in approximately the above proportions : 

No. I 

Acid pliosphate, 14 per cent phosphoric acid . 875 lbs. 
Cotton-seed meal, 6.61 per cent nitrogen . . . 950 lbs. 
Kainit, 12^ per cent potash 175 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 2 

Acid phosphate 1000 lbs. 

Fish scrap, 8J54!' nitrogen 750 lbs. 

Kainit 250 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 3 

Acid phosphate 1000 11)S. 

Fish scrap 920 lbs. 

Muriate of potash, 50 per cent potash .... 80 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 4 

Acid phosphate 950 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 1000 lbs. 

Muriate of potash 50 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 



252 ACiKICULrURl-: FOR liKCINNlOkS 

No. 5 

Acid phosphate 1 250 lbs. 

Dried blood, 13 per cent nitrogen 650 lbs. 

Muriate of potash 100 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 

Fertilizers for Cotton. — A fertilizer containing 7 per cent available 
phosphoric acid, 2>< per cent of potash, and ly^ percent of nitrogen 
is well suited to cotton. The following mixtures furnish these mate- 
rials in approximately the above proportions : 

No. I 

Acid phosi)hate, 14 per cent })hosphoric acid . 900 ll)s. 

Cotton-seed meal, 6.6 per cent nitrogen . 800 lbs. 

Kainit, liyi per cent potash 300 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 2 

Acid phosphate 950 lbs. 

Fish scrap, '^)i per cent nitrogen 650 lbs. 

Kainit 400 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 3 

Acid phosphate 1000 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 925 llxs. 

Muriate of potash, 50 per cent i)otash ... 75 lbs 

2000 lbs. 
No. 4 

Acid phosphate 1075 lbs. 

Fish scrap, 8^ per cent nitrogen 800 lbs. 

Muriate of potash 125 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 5 

Acid phosphate . . . .\,^ 1250 lbs. 

Dried blood, 13 per cent nitrogen ^. . . . . 600 lbs. 

Muriate of potash 150 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 



APPENDIX 



253 



Fertilizers for Tobacco. — For average conditions a fertilizer con- 
taining 6 per cent available phosphoric acid, 2^ per cent potash, 
and lyi per cent of nitrogen is well suited to tobacco. The follow- 
ing mixtures furnish these materials in approximately the above 
proportions : 

No. I 

Cotton-seed meal 900 lbs. 

Nitrate of soda 100 lbs. 

High-grade sulphate of potash 250 lbs. 

Acid phosphate, 14 per cent 750 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 2 

High-grade dried blood 500 lbs. 

Nitrate of soda 125 lbs. 

High-grade sulphate of potash 310 lbs. 

Acid phosphate 1065 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 3 

Fish scrap 725 lbs. 

Nitrate of soda 100 lbs. 

High-grade sulphate of potash 300 lbs. 

Acid phosphate 875 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 4 

Dried blood 500 lixs. 

Nitrate of soda 100 lbs. 

High-grade sulphate of potash 400 lbs. 

Acid phosphate 1000 lbs. 

2000 lbs. 
No. 5 

Cotton-seed meal 700 lbs. 

Nitrate of .soda 100 lbs. 

High-grade sulphate of potash 300 lbs. 

Acid phosphate 900 lbs. 

2000 lbs, 



GLOSSARY 



To enable young readers to understand the technical words necessarily 
used in the text only popular definitions are given. 

Abdomen: the part of an insect lyin;; ])ehind the thorax. 

Acid : a chemical name given to many sour sul)stances. Vinegar 
and lemon juice owe their sour taste to the acid in them. 

Adult: a person, animal, or plant grown to full size and strength. 

Ammonia. (aM/z/o/iiin^i): a compound of nitrogen readily usable as 
a plant food. It is one of the jjroducts of decay. 

Annual: a plant that l)ears seed during the first year of its existence 
and then dies. 

Anther: the part of a stamen that hears the pollen. 

Atmospheric nitrogen : nitrogen in the air. (ireat quantities of this 
valuable plant food are in the air ; but, strange to say, most 
plants cannot use it directly from the air, but must take it in 
other forms, as nitrates, etc. The legumes are an exception, as 
they can use atmospheric nitrogen. 

Available plant food : food in such condition that plants can use it. 

Bacteria: a name applied to a number of kinds of very small living 
beings, some beneficial, some harmful, some disease-producing. 
They average about one twenty-thousandth of an inch in length. 

Balanced ration : a ration made up of the proper amounts of carbo- 
hydrates, fats, and protein, as exj>lained in text. Such a ration 
avoids all waste of food. 

Biennial: a plant that produces seed during the second year of its 
existence and then dies. 

Blight: a diseased condition in plants in which the whole or a part 
of a plant withers or dries up. 

Bluestone : a chemical; copper sulphate. It is used to kill fungi, etc. 

255 



256 A(.UK Dl. I U Ki; I'OK r.l':(.INN!:KS 

Bordeaux Mixture: a mixture invented in hordcmix, I' ranee, to 

destroy disease produein^ fun|;i. 
Bud (noun): an uiuK'veloped branch. 
Bud (verh): to insert a hud ln)ni tlie s( ion upon the sloe U to insure 

better fruit. 
Bud variation: occasionally one bud on a plant will luoduce a branch 

dillerini; in some \va\s IVom the rest of the blanches; this is bud 

variation, 'i'he shoot that is pioduci'd b) buil vaii.ition is called 

a sport. 
Calyx : tin- outi'rmost row of leaves in a flower. 

Canil)iuui: ihi' |;rowini; layer lyin^" bi'tween thi' wood .ind the baik. 
Canon : the shank bone above the felloe k in the loii- and hind li\i;s 

ot a hoise. 
Carbohydrates: e;irbohydr;ites are foods free from idtro«;-en. They 

make up the lari;t'st p;u t of ;dl \'e^('t.d)les. i'.xamples ari' su<;ar, 

st:u"eh, and celhilosiv 
Carbolic acid : a t lii-nTK al olten used to kill or pre\i'nt the growth ol 

j;erms, bacteria, fungi, etc. 
Carbon: ;i (hemie^d element. Charco:d is nearly pur(> r:ubon. 
Carbon disulphide : a ( hemic;il used to kill insects. 
Carbonic acid gas : a gas consisting of c.iiboii and o\\gi'n. It is i)ro- 

tluced by bicithiiig, and \vhene\er ( ,u bon is buined. It is the 

source of the carbon in plants. 
Cereal : the name gi\'en to gi.isses that aic i.iisi-d for the food » on- 

l.iiiu'd in iheii seeds, such as corn, wheat, rice. 
Cobalt : a poisonous t hemical used to kill insects. 
Cocoon: the case made by an insect to contain its l.irva or pupa. 
Commercial fertilizer: an enriching plant food bought to improve soil. 
Compact : a soil is said to be lonipat t wlu'u the particles are closely 

p.icked. 
Concentrated : when applied to food the word nuwns that it cont.uns 

nmch feeding value in small bulk. 
Contagious: ;» dise;»se is s;iid to lu- cont.igious w1um\ it ( .ni be spicad 

or cariii'd from om- individuab t(^ jinother. 
Cross: the result of biceding two varieties of plant together. 
Cross pollination: the pollination of :i llower by po'llen brought from 

.1 llower on some other pl.mt. 



CLOSSAKY 2S7 

Cioitp : the l()|> ol the hips. 

Culturo : the ail oi |)rep;irin|jj juioiiikI Ioi .s(<(1 and laisiii^ < mps Ity 

lilla|(('. 
Ciiil) di.sease : :i swclhii;.; on Ihc l)a( k p.iilol Ihc hind h;; ol a hoisc 

jnsl behind the lowest j);irt ol llie liock joml. It generally ( auses 

hunent'ss. 
('inciilio : a kind of beetle or weevil. 

I)(rn<lr()h;no : .1 |)atcnlcd snbstan< c u.sctl loi ( al( hiii;.; laidu'i worms. 
DigiislioM ; the .k t by which lood \u |)i(|)air(| |)y ilic juiees ol tin 

body (o be n.'.cd by Ihc blood 
Durmant : a word used to desi 1 ibc .'.Iccpin^ or rcstin;.', bodies, bodies 

not in ,1 slate ol activity. 
J)raina^(5 : the |)ro((*ss by whi( h an cx( ess ol w.ilci is icniovcd lioni 

Ihc l.ind by dih ius, tciia(cs, or tiles. 
lOloinent : a Md).sl.in( 1- th.il ( .mnol be divided into .'.iniplci :.nb 

st.inct'S. 
I^jisilaji^e ; ^occn loods |)reserved in a sil(>. 
ICvaporato : to p.e,^, oil in vapor, as a lluid ollcn docs; to < h.m^e 

ironi a solid 01 Tupiid stale into vapor, usn.illy by heal. 
KxhauHtion : tin; stale in whii h strenj^th, j)ower, and lor<c have been 

lost. When ap|)Iicd to land, the word means that l.ind has lost 

its power to plodlK (• well. 
Kermentation : a ( hcmit a! ( li.nit'c |)iod(i( cd by b.nlciia, yeast, etc. 

A common example ol leimcnt.ition is the ( h.in;M' ol ( ider into 

vinegar. 
I<'crli!ity: llnr slate ol bein^; linitbd. I,.ind is said to be Icitilc when 

il pi odn< c:. well. 
I''ertilizati()n : the a( I whi< h lollow;. pr)llin.ilion .ind cn.ibhs a llow( 1 

to produce seed. 
Fetlock: the longhaired t iishion on the b.n I. '.ide (d .1 hoise's \v^ 

just above the hoof. 
Fiber: any line, slendei tine id 01 threadlike substance, as the niotlets 

of |)lants or tint lint ol < otton. 
Filter: to purify a li(jnid, as water, by ( ausin;; it to |)a.ss lhion;;h 

some substance, as pajjer, (loth, Hcreens, etc. 
I^'ormalin : a forty jiei < ent solution of a ( heini( al known as loiin.d 

dehyde. f 01 in. din is used to kill lun|.;i, bacUli.i, el<;. 



25S ACKicui/ruKi': iok i;i:(;inn1'J<s 

Formula: n rt*ci|)i' for llu* niakiiii; of :i comiiound ; for cxainplr, fiT- 

tili/i'r or sprayin;; coinpouiHls. 
Fungicide: a suhslaiicc used to kill or ])r(\(iit (lie growth of fungi; 

for oxanipir, ilordiMux Mi.xliirc- oi" ( oppt 1 sulpli.ih-. 
Fungous: hi'longiiig t<> 01 ( .uiscd l)\ liiii<;i. 
Fungus (plural fungi) : a low kind of plant life ku king in green 

color. Molds and toadstools are ivxanipK's. 
Germ: llial from \vhi( li an\ tiling springs. 'I'lie term isollen applied 

to any very small organism or living lhii»g, |)ai licularly if it 

<:iusi\s great (.•ilicls such as disi-ase, fermentation, eli'. 
Germinate: to sprout. A seed germinates when it begins to grow. 
Girdle : to maki- a < ul or groovi' around a liinl) or tree. 
Glacier: an innnense tield or stream ol i( c lorine(l in the icgion ol 

constant snow and nu)ving slowly down a slope or \alley. 
Globule: a small parti( le of matter shaped like a gIol)i>. 
Glucose: a kind ol sugar very connnon in |ilanls. 'I'lu' sugai' from 

grapes, honey, etc. is glucose. I'hat liom the sugar cane is not. 
Gluten: a vegetaMe loini ol piolcin ionnd in ceieals. 
Graft: to place a li\in;; liian(h or stem on anolhei" li\ing stem so 

that it ma\' i^iow then-. It insines tlu' growth ot the desired 

kind of plant. 
Granule : a little grain. 
Gypsum : land |)laster. 
'* Head back " : to cut or |)i nne ;i tree so ;is to form its head, that is, 

the place wlu're tlu- m;nn trnrd; first gives olf its brant lies. 
Heredity: the resemblance of ollsprim; to parent. 
Hibernating: to p;iss tlu' winter in a torpid 01 iiKu tive state in (lose 

(punters. 
Hock : the joint in tli(> hind leg of (piadrupeds between the leg and 

the shank. It corresponds t(» the ankle in man. 
Host: the plant upon wdiich a fungus oi" insect is ])reying. 
Humus: the portion of the soil caused by the decay of animal or 

vegetable matter. ^ , 

Hybrid: the result of breeding two diffei^cnt kinds of plants together. 
Hydrogen: a chemi( al element. It is present in w;ater and in all 

li\iiig things. 
Individual: a single peison, plant, animal, or thing of any kind. 



Cl.OSSAKY 259 

Inoculate: to /<ivc ;i disciisc by iiisntiii^ the ^^ci in tliat causes il in 

a lu'iillhy hc'in^';^. 
Insectivorous: iiiiythin;^ lli;il ciils insects. 
Kainit : sails ol pol.isli nscd in ni.ikinj; ICilili/cis. 
Kernel : a single seed or ^rain, as a kernel ol ( 01 n. 
Kerosene emulsion : sci; Appendix. 

Larva (plur;d larva-): llie younj^ or innn.ilme ioini ol an inse( t. 
Larval: jjelon^ini; lo larva. 
Layer: to propagate ]j|:inls by a method similar to i nltin;', hut diffcr- 

inj^ Irom cutlin;; in lli;it llie youn^ pi.int tal.es lool Ix loie il is 

sep:ir;iled Ironi the jjarenl plant. 
Legume: a pl.inl l)elon;^in;.; to llic lamily ol the jxa, clover, and 

bean; lliat is, liavin;; a flower ol similar sinietnrc. 
Lichen : a kind ol llovverless plant that ;;rovvs on stones, trees, hoards, 

etc. 
Loam: an earthy mixtmc of ( lay and sand with organic matter. 
Magnesia^: an earthy white snhstaiK e sonicwh.it similar to linn'. 
Magnify : to make a Ihin^ larger in lai t or in appearance ; to eii!ar;jje 

the appearaiic(r of :i thin;^ so that the parts may be seen more easily. 
Membrane: a thin layer or fold oi animal or ve;^(*table matter. 
Mildew: a cobwebby ;;rowth ol hinL;i on diseased or deeayin;; thin;;s. 
Mold : see tJiildcw. 
Mulch : a ( ove-rin^ of straw, leaves, or like substances over the roots 

of jilants to protect them from lieal, (h'ou^ht, etc., and lo preserve 

moistmc. 
Nectar: a sweetish substance in blossoms of (lowers from which bers 

make honey. 
Nitrate : a readily usable form of nitrogen. The most (onmxjn nitrate 

is saltpeter. 
Nitrogen: a < hcmicaj element, one of the most important and most 

expensive phint loods. It exists in leitili/.ers, in aimnonia, in 

nitrates, and in oi-^anic matter. 
Nodule: a little knot or bump. 

Nutrient: any substance which nourishes or promotes growth. 
Organic matter: substances made throu^^h the ;^rowth of |d;ints or 

aninials. 
Ovary: the particular pari u[ the jjislil that bears the innnature seed. 



26o AGRICULTUKK FUR liEGlNNERS 

Ovipositor : llie organ with which an insect deposits its eggs. 

Oxygen : a gas present in the air and necessary to breathing. 

Particle : any very small part of a body. 

Perennial: living through several years. All trees are perennial. 

Petal : a single leaf of the corolla. 

Phosphoric acid : an important plant food occurring in bones and rock 

phosphates. 
Pistil: the i)art of the blossom that contains the immature seeds. 
Pollen : the powdery substance borne by the stamen of the flower. 

It is necessary to seed production. 
Pollination: the act of carrying pollen from stamens to pistils. It is 

usually done l)y the wind or by insects. 
Porosity : the state of having small openings or passages between 

the particles of matter. 
Potash : an important part of plant foods. The chief source of 

potash is kainit, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash, wood 

ashes, and cotton-hull ashes. 
Propagate : to cause plants or animals to increase in number. 
Protein: the name of a group of substances containing nitrogen. It 

is one of the most important of feeding stuffs. 
Pruning : trimming or cutting j)arts that are not needed or that are 

injurious. 
Pulverize : to reduce to a dustlike state. 
Pupa : an insect in the stage of its life that comes just before the 

adult condition. 
Purity (of seed) : seeds are pure when they contain only one kind of 

seed and no foreign matter. 
Ration : a fixed daily allowance of food for an animal. 
Raupenleim : a patented sticky substance used to catch the cankerworm. 
Resistant : a plant is resistant to disease when it can ward off attacks 

of the disease ; for example, some varieties of the grape are resist- 
ant to the phylloxera. 
Rotation (of crops) : a well-arraitged succession of different crops on 

the same land. ^ 

Scion : a shoot, si)rout, or branch taken to graft or bud ujion another 

plant. 
Seed bed: the layer of earth in which seeds are sown. 



CjLOSSARY 261 

Seed selection: the careful selection of seed from ])articular ])lants 

with the object of keepinij^ or increasing some desirable (|uahty. 
Seedling : a young plant just from the seed. 
Sepal : one of the leaves in the calyx. 
Silo: a house or i)it for packing away green food for winter use so 

as to exclude air and moisture. 
Sire : father. 
Smut : a disease of plants, particularly of cereals, which causes the 

])lant or some part of it to become a powdery mass. 
Spiracle: an air opening in the body of an insect. 
Spore : a small body formed by a fungus to reproduce the fungus. 

It serves the same use as seeds do for flowering j)lants. 
Spray: to api)ly a liciuid in the form of a very line mist by the aid of 

a spraying pump for the purpose of killing fungi or insects. 
Stamen: the |)art of the flower that bears tlie i^ollen. 
Stamina : endurance. 
Sterilize : ,to destroy all the germs or sjjores in or on anything. 

Sterilizing is often done by heat or chemicals. 
Stigma: the part of the pistil that receives the pollen. 
Stock: the stem or main part of a tree or plant. Jn grafting or bud- 
ding the .scion is inserted upon the stock. 
Stover: as used in this book the word means the dry stalks of corn 

from which the ears have l)een removed. 
Subsoil: the soil under the topsoil. 
Sulphur: a yellowish chemical element; brimstone. 
Taproot: the main root of a ])lant, which runs directly down into the 

earth to a considerable depth without dividing. 
Terrace: a ridge of earth run on a level around a slope or hillside to 

keep the land from washing. 
Thorax: the middle part of the body of an insect. The thorax lies 

between the abdomen and the head. 
Tillage: the act of preparing land for seed, and ke(j)ing the ground 

in a proper state for the growth of crops. 
Transplant: a plant grown in a bed with a view to being removed to 

other soil. 
Tubercle : a small, wartlike growth on tlie roots of legumes. 
Udder : the milk vessel of a cow. 



262 AGRICULTURE FOR BECilNNERS 

Utensil : a vessel used for household purposes. 

Variety: a particular kind. For example, the Winesap, r>onum, TFsop, 

etc., are different varieties of apples. 
Ventilate : to open to the free passage of air. 
Virgin soil : a soil which has never been cultivated. 
Vitality (of seed) : vitahty is the ability to grow. Seed are of good 

vitality if a large per cent of them will sprout. 
Weathering : the action of moisture, air, frost, etc. upon rocks. 
Weed : a plant out of place. A wheat plant in a rose bed or a rose 

in the wheat field would be regarded as a weed, as would any 

plant growing in a place in which it is not wanted. 
Wilt (of cotton) : a disease of cotton in which the whole plant droops 

or wilts. 
Withers : the ridge between the shoulder bones of a horse, at the 

base of the neck. 
Yeast : a preparation containing the yeast plant used to make bread 

rise, etc. 



INDEX 



Animals, 182. 
Annual, 74. 
Ant, 1 18. 
Anther, 46. 

Apple, 62, 82, 92, 103, 248. 
Apple-tree tent caterpillar, 
'37- 

Bacteria, 26, 23^ ioi» io4' 225. 

Bailey, Professor, quoted, 56. 

Balanced ration, 2 1 6-2 18. 

Bee, 120, 207. 

Bee, anti-robbing entrance, 210. 

Bee culture, 207. 

Beetle, 120, 121. 

Biennials, 74. 

Birds, 234. 

Blackberry, 58, 62. 

Black knot, 1 14, 1 15. 

Blight, potato, 1 1 1. 

pear and apple, 103. 
Bordeaux Mixture, 99, 100, 247. 
liordeaux-l'aris-green mixture, 

250. 
Borer, peach, 138. 
Breeding cage, insect, 126. 
Bud variation, 61. 
Budding, 86. 
Buds, 58, 62, 86. 
Bug, 120, 121. 
Burbank, Luther, 86. 



Butter, 223. 
Butterfly, 120, 123. 

Cabbage, 1 14, 248. 

worm, 140, 141. 
136, Cambium, 84, 104. 
Cankerworm, 133. 
Capillarity, 12. 
Carbohydrates, 213, 214. 
Carbon, 41, 42. 
Carbonic acid gas, 8. 
Caterpillar, 1 23. 
Cattle, 192. 
Cauliflower, 114, 248. 
Cherries, 62, 248, 250. 
Chinch bug, 140. 
Churn, the, 222, 223. 
Clover, 39. 
Club root, 1 14. 
Cocoon, 121, 122, 124, 125. 
Codling moth, 128. 
Colostrum, 220. 
[30, Consumption, germ of, loi, 
Corn, 38, 39, 168, 251. 

blossom of, 47. 

injury to roots of, 29. 

roots, 30. 

selection of seed, 69. 
Cotton, 150, 251. 

resistant variety, 105. 

Sea Island, 105. 
263 



264 



AGRICULTURK FOR BEGINNERS 



Cotton, wilt, 1 15. 
Cow, tlie dairy, 216. 

care of, 218. 
Cowpeas, 3^^ 37, ^S, 39, 76. 
Cream, 221. 

Crop rotation, illustration of, 40. 
Crops, 14S, 149. 

rotation of, 9, 21, 22, 31;. 

value per acre of, 149. 
Cross, 50. 

pollination, 50. 
Curculio, plum, 131. 
Currant, 62. 
Cuttings, 54, 56, 57, 61. 

Dairying, 216, 224. 
Dendrolene, 135. 
Diphtheria, germ of, 101. 
Diseases of plants, 94. 
Domestic animals, 182. 
Drainage, benefits of, 15. 
Ducks, 204. 

Farm crops, 148. 
Fats, 213, 214. 
Feeding, reasons for, 211. 
Feeding stuffs, digestil)le nutrients 
in, 214, 215. 
growing, on the farm, 228. 
Fertilization, 48. 
Fertilizers, 24, 28, 251. 
Field insects, 118, 140. 
Figs, 61. 
Fire blight, 103. 
Flax, 65. 

Flea-beetle, 144. V 

Flower, the, 44. 
Fly, 120. 

Fornuiliu, 108, 1 1 i. 
l'\)\vls, J04. 



Fruit mold, 1 16. 

Fruit rot, 94. 

Fruit tree, how to raise a, 82. 

Fultz, Abraham, 68. 

Fungi, 98. 

Garden, 179. 

Garden insects, 118, 140. 

Geese, 204. 

Cierms, 33^ 34> 104 ; see also Bacteria. 

(iideon, Mr., 61. 

Girdler, 137. 

Girdling, 43, 44. 

Glacier, 3, 4, 5. 

Gooseberries, 62. 

Grafting, 58, 83. 

cleft, 85, 86. 

root, 85. 

time for, 85. 

tongue, 83, 84. 

wax, 84. 
Grape, 61, 248. 
Grape cutting, 57. 
Grape phylloxera, 132. 
Crape pollination, 55. 
Grass crop, 148. 

Heading back, 89. 
1 lens, 204, 206. 
Heredity, 70. 
Hessian fly, 145. 
Homes, country, 240. 
Horse, 183. 

diagrams by which to judge, 
186, 189, 190. 

Percheron, 185. 
— proportions of, 191. 
Host, 98. 

Humus, 6, 20, 2 1^ 23. 
Hybrids, 50, 5 i. 



INDEX 



265 



Insects, cage for breeding, 126. 

field, 141. 

garden, 141. 

general, 1 18. 

how they feed, 121. 

orchard, 126. 

parts of, 1 19. 
Irish potato, 58. 

propagation of, 58. 

Kerosene emulsion, 127, 247. 
King quoted, 4. 

Land, reclaiming of, 19, 37. 
Larva, 121. 
Layering, 58, 60. 
Legumes, 23^ 34. 
Lime, 26. 
Louse, plant, 142. 

Machines, farm, 232. 
Manures, 22, 24, 28. 
Mildew, 96, 98. 

how to prevent, 98. 
Milk, 220, 224. 

sours, how, 225. 
Moisture, 10. 
Mold, 95-97, 1 16. 
Moth, 120, 122, 124. 
Moth, codling, 128. 
Mulch, 13. 

Nectar, 49. 

Nitrogen, 24, 34, 35, 37, 38. 
Nitrogen-gathering crops, 16. 
Nodules, 38. 

Oat, 107. 

Orchard insects, 118, 126. 

Osmosis, 23- 



Paris green, 247. 

Peach, 62, 90, 92, 115, 116, 117, 250. 

Peach borer, 138. 

Peach curl, 1 1 5. 

Peanuts, 173. 

Pear, 62, 103, 248. 

Pear-tree girdler, 137. 

Perennials, 75. 

Petal, 45. 

Phosphoric acid, 24. 

Phylloxera, 132. 

Pistil, 44, 45, 46. 

Plant, the, 41, 

Plant disease, cause of, 94. 

nature of, 94. 

prevention of, 102, 247, 248. 
Plant food, 36, 37. 

from air, 41. 

from soil, 31. 

kinds of, 36. 
Plant louse, 142. 
Plant propagation, 54. 

by buds, 54. 
Plant seeding, 62. 
Planting a tree, 88. 
Plow, right way to, 11. 
Plum curculio, 131. 
Plums, 62, 250. 
Pollen, 46, 47, 48. 
Pollination, 48, 49, 50. 

cross, 50. 

by hand, 51. 

grape, 55. 
Potash, 24. 
Potato, 58, 59, 248. 

beetle, 145. 

blight, III. 

scab, 109. 

sweet, 59, 175. 
Poultry, 204. 



266 



AGRICULTURE FOR BEGINNERS 



Propagation of plants l)y buds, 54. 
Protein, 212, 214, 230. 
Pruning, 88. 
root, 92. 
Pupa, 122, 124, 125. 
Purity of seed, 77. 

Quince, 62, 248. 

Raspberry, 58, 62. 

Ration, balanced, 216-218. 

Raupenleim, 135. 

Red raspberry, 62. 

Rice, 177. 

Roads, 240, 241, 245. 

Root hairs, 27, 28, 29, 32, 42. 

Root pruning, 92. 

Root tubercles, ^3^ 37- 

Roots, 27. 

Rot of fruit, 94. 

Rotation of crops, 9, 21, 22, 35. 

San Jose scale, 1 26. 

Sap current, the, 42. 

Scab, 109. 

Scale, San Jose, 126. 

Schoolhouses, 240, 244. 

Scion, 84, 86. 

Seed, 44. 

germination, 78. 
purity, 77. 

selection, 51, 59, 65. 
of corn, 69. 
of cotton, 66. 
of potatoes, 59. 
of wheat, 66, 68. 
vitality, 77. 
Seeding, 62. 

Selection of seed; see Seed selection. 
Sepal, 45. 



Sheep, 197. 
Smuts, 107. 
Soil, I. 

bacteria in, 26. 

deepening of, 9. 

definition of, i. 

drainage of, 15. 

how water rises in, 14. 

improving, 18. 

nuuunip.g of, 22. 

moisture of, 10. 

origin of, r. 

particles of, magnified, 12. 

retention of water by, 13. 

tillage of, 6. 

virgin, 19, 20. 
Spores, 95, 97, 98. 
Spraying, 112, 1 13, 1 17, 146, 247-250. 

outfit, 143. 
Squanto, 22. 
Squash bug, the, 143. 
vStamen, 45-48. 
Stigma, 45-4^'>- 
Stock, 84. 

Stockbridge quoted, 4. 
Strawberry, 58. 
Style, 45. 
Subsoil, I. 
Subsoiling, 10. 
Sweet potato, 59, 175. 
Swine, 200. 

Tent caterpillar, 136, 137. 
Terraces, 20. 
Tile drain, 16. 

benefits of, 1 7. 
Ullage, 6, 19, 29. 
Tobacco, 159, 251. 
Tobacco worm, 145. 
Tongue grafting, 83, 84. 



INDEX 



267 



Tools, 232. 
Topping, 161. 
Tree, manuring of, 28. 
Tubercle, ^^;^, 39. 
TuU, Jethro, 6. 
quoted, 7. 
Turkeys, 204. 
Turnip, i 14. 
Typhoid fever, germ of, loi, 

Vitality of seed, 77. 



Water, abscjrption by plants, 10. 

retention of, by soil, 13. 

rise of, in soil, 14. 

saved by plants, 10. 

saved by soils, i 2. 
Weathering, 5, 8. 
Weeds, 73. 
Weevil, 144. 
Wheat, 107, 163. 

yield of, 68. 
Worn-out land, reclaiming of, 19. 



Wasp, 1 20. 
Water, 10. 



Yeast, 100. 



NATURE STUDY 



The Jane Andrews Books pVic*e ^ph""^ 

The Seven I jtlh; Sisters #0.50 )^o.55 

Kach and All 50 

Stories Mother Nature 'I'okl Her ("liikhen 50 

My Four Friends 40 

Atkinson's First Studies of Plant Life 60 

Beal's Seed Dispersal 35 

Bergen's Glimpses at the Plant World 40 

Burt's Little Nature Studies for Little People 

Voliutie I. A I'rinier and a First Keader. Volume II. 

A Second Keader and a Third keader . . eat h .25 .30 
Burkett, Stevens, and Hill's Agriculture for Beginners 

Comstock's Ways of the Six-Footed 40 

Eddy's Friends and Helpers 60 

Frye's Brooks and Brook Basins r8 

Frye's Child and Nature 80 

Gould's Mother Nature's Children 60 

Hale's Little Flower-People 40 

Hodge's Nature Study and Life 1.50 

Holden's The Sciences 50 

Jefferies' Sir Bevis 30 

Lane's Oriole Stories 28 

Long's Wood Folk Series 

Ways of Wood Folk 50 

Wilderness Ways 45 

Secrets of the Wof)ds 50 

Wood Folk at ScIukjI 50 

Morley's Little Wanderers 30 

lns(,-et I*"olk .45 

Porter's Stars in Song and Legend 50 

Roth's First Book of Forestry 75 

Stickney's Study and Story Nature Readers 

I<>arth and Sky, No. I 30 

I'^arth and Sky, No. II 30 

Pets and Companions 30 

i^ird World 60 

Strong's All the Year Round. I'ari I, Autumn. Tart II, 

Winter. Part III, Spring each .30 

Weed's Seed-Travellers 25 

Weed's Stories of Insect Life 

First Series 25 .30 

Second Series. (Murtfeldt and W(;ed) 30 .35 



55 

55 
45 
70 

40 
45 



45 
70 
70 
88 
70 
45 
65 
60 

35 
33 

60 

50 
60 
60 

35 
50 

55 
«5 

35 

35 
40 

70 

35 
30 



GINN & COMPANY Publishers 



WOOD FOLK SKRIKS 



Hy VVIMJAIVI J. L()N(; 

llaiJUllon WilKlit MablC, .-I .\.u>,/,i/r hLlilor o/ tin- " <>////,>,>/,■ "; William ). I,<.iik is 
a liivcr ol wil<l lili- wIiohi; rcpoils of wli.il hhvh on in cailii and air arc lii'.'.li, vital, and 
|)i( tiii'csi|ni-. Ill' li.iH rvidrnliy lit-iHi aliioadal all linniM and li.is Mn'|irisi'd jx-asts aiul 
liiids in tin ii iM«r.l iinj^nardi-d nioiniMits. Mr. i.onn lias a lirsli, sinn-n; stylL-, .in (•a^;L•r 
cuiiimiiy, aini a liaincd lialiil oi oli.scrvalion. lit- writes with unalli-clcd »kill. 

Ways of Wood Folk 

^'"> I>;iK'"^- I lliislr.ilcii. I.i'.t |iii((', i:;f) (cuts; iiLiiliiii; |)i ii >•, (n, c ciils. 

'I'liis (Idii'Jill III wmk lills ol llic lives :iii(l li;il(il.s nl llic (oiimioiicr 
wood lolU, such ;is llic (low, lli<: mliliil, tin; wild (liic:k. llic l)o<di is 
pioliisi'ly illiislralcd !)y <'li;iik:,s ( 'opcliuul and oilier iiitisls. 

Wilclornoss Ways 

1 1,!^ paj^i's. Hill .1 latiii. I a. I pi i( i-, .):; ( ciils ; iiiailiiij; pri( <•, t;() ( cuts. 

" VVildci iicss \V;iy.s" is wiilliii in the s;imc iii!(iis<'ly iiiicMcsliiij; styhr 
as its picrdccessoi, " Ways ol Wood l''olk." I he hidden lite; ol tin; 
wildcnic'ss is here ptcseiited by sketclK.-s and sloiics j.',;ilhcr(;d, not fioin 
books or hearsiiy, lint I loin tin- ;inlhoi 's peison;il ( onl;H I with wild things 
of eveiy description. 

Secrets of the Woods 

i.S.j p.i^^es. Hill sir ili'd. last piicc, tjo ci'iits ; niailiiij^ |ii i( e, (xi (ciits. 

This is iinothei ( haplci in the shy, wild lile ol llie lields and woods. 
Little Tookln^es, the wood nioiist; lh;il di(;s ol hij^hl in tin; author's 
hand; lln; mother oiler, Keeont;kh, Icai hinj; lu;r liltle ones to swim; 
and tht; liltle led scpiirrel with his many ciiiious Inibits,- all are pre 
seiiled with I he sanit; livelin(;ss and color tlntt « h;ii;i( leri/,e the desciip 
tions in the lirst lw(t vobnnes. The illiislialions by (hailes ( 'opi-land 
are unusuidly ;ut:nialc in porlrayinj.; animal lile as il itally exists in its 
native; haunts. 

Wood Folk at School 

iS()p,i^i",. I lliist la li'd, 1 a.l piii<-, c,c)(ciils; iii.iiliii^; pi ii c, ^xi ( cuts. 

The litli; of this new book sugj^ests lln; ceidial thought aboid which 
(he author has f^rouped some of his most fuse inatin^^ animal studies. 
To him "the siimmei wilderness is out; vast s< hoolroom in which a 
multitudi: oi wise, |)atient mothers aie teat hinj; their little ones the 
things lh(;y niiisl know in oidctr t(> hold their place in the; worlil and 
escape uidiarnu-d liom a hundred dan/:^ers." 

'I'his book, also, is adecpialely illustrated'by (hailes ( 'opiland. 



GINN & COMPANY Publishers 



Hodge's Nature Study and Life 

Assistant Trofessor of I'hysiolo^y and Neurolojiy in Clark University, 
VVorcL'stLT, Mass. Witli an Introduction by Or. (i. SrANi.r.Y IIai.i.. 
Cloth. 51.1 j):i;^(;s. Illustrated. List price, J". 1.50 ; mailing' price, Jf-i-O,. 



NATUKl": STUDY AND LII'J-: lui.s twice formed the basis 
for iiatiirc-study < (hiiscs in the Clark University Sunnncr 
School ; it has further stood the more practical test of teachers' 
institutes in various states ; and, finally, its most important su;;- 
gestions have been tried thoroughly in the schoolroom. 'I'he work 
contains the results of five years' special study, in the ])oint of 
view, in the selection of the subject-matter, and in the presentation 
of methods of conducting the work, this book marks a definite 
advance over other publications on the subject of nature study. 

It is a deterniiniMl rca< tion against the S[)ecial and technical, 
and forms an earnest effort to give fundamental and universal 
interests in nature their deserved place in our .system of public edu- 
cation. After presenting this point of view clearly in the oi)ening 
chajiter, the book takes up concrete lessons on the animals and 
jjlants that form the natural environment of the home, and group 
themselves nujst closely about the life and interests of the child. 
Each form is studied alive and at work, as a life story to be reatl 
at first hand in nature and especially in its relations to man. 

The book is a i2mo, bound attractively in blue and gold, so that 
the volume is eminently appropriate in appearance not only for the 
schoolroom, but also for the home reading table or bookshelf. The 
illustrations are of unusual value and interest. The whole plan and 
make-up oi the book have been kept in as close harmony as possible 
with the excellence and high character of the text itself. 

From the School ReVieW, Chicago 

The puhlishers do not overstate the merits of this book when they say that it 
is one of tiie most notable nature-study Ijooks now published. The emphasis is 
upon nature^ — not upon study, — and life is never sacrificed to some fancied 
correlation or some narrow scientific applicatitm. The illustrations are sinj^u 
larly felicitous in that they sIkjw us not only nature, Init human nature in the 
persons of interested ^irls and boys. This is a book for the home as well as 
for the school. It is scientific in its knowledge, simple in its phraseology, and 
fascinating in its style. 

GINN & COMPANY Publishers 



THE JANE ANDREWS BOOKS 

The Seven Little Sisters Who Live on the Round Ball That 
Floats in the Air. Cloth. 121 pages. With new full-page illus- 
trations. For introduction, 50 cents. 

Each and All ; The Seven Little Sisters Prove Their Sister= 
hood. Cloth. 162 pages. With new full-page illustrations. For 
introduction, 50 cents. 

The Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children. Cloth. 161 
pages. With new full-page illustrations. For introduction, 50 cents. 

Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago to Now. 

Cloth. 243 pages. With new full-page illustrations. For intro- 
duction, 50 cents. 

The stories of My Four Friends. Edited by Margaret Andrews 
Allen. Cloth. 100 pages. Fully illustrated. For introduction, 
40 cent J'. 

Geographical Plays. Cloth. 140 pages. For introduction, 50 cents. 

The " Seven Little Sisters " represents the seven races. The book shows how 
people live in the various parts of the world, what their manners and customs are, 
what the products of each section are and how they are interchanged. 

" Each and All " continues the story of " Seven Little Sisters," and tells more 
01 the peculiarities of the various races, especially in relation to childhood. 

Dame Nature unfolds in "Stories Mother Nature Told" some of her most 
precious secrets. She tells about the amber, about the dragon-fly and its wonder- 
ful history, about water-lilies, how the Indian corn grows, what queer pranks 
the Frost Giants indulge in, about coral, and starfish, and coal mines, and many 
other things in which children take delight. 

In " Ten Boys " the history of the world is summarized in the stories of 
Kablu the Aryan boy, Darius the Persian boy, Cleon the Greek boy, Horatius the 
Roman boy, Wulf the Saxon boy, Gilbert the knight's page, Roger the English 
boy, Fuller the Puritan boy, Dawson the Yankee boy, and Frank Wilson the 
boy of 1885. 

The " Four Friends " are the four seasons personified. They weave into 
stories the wonderful workings of nature. Any child who has enjoyed " How the 
Indian Corn Grows," or " A Peep into One of God's Storehouses," in " Stories 
Mother Nature Told Her Children," will be glad to read of " Some Frost 
Flowers," "The North Wind's Birth Gift to the Earth's Youngest Child," 
which Winter tells, or the spring story of " What Was Heard Under the Ground 
One April Day." \ 

GINN & COMPANY, Publishers, 

Boston. New York. Chicago. San Francisco. 

Atlanta. Dallas. Columbus. London. 



THE 

DESCRIPTIVE SPELLER 

By GEORGE B. AITON 

State Inspector of High Schools for Minnesota 



Cloth. 218 pages. List price, 22 cents ; mailing price, 30 cents 



This is a carefully graded, common-sense spelling book. 
Its title indicates its underlying purpose, — namely, to pre- 
sent groups of words which shall place before the child a 
series of mental pictures. Interest is thus awakened and 
the spelling lesson becomes much less formidable. The 
vocabularies, which correlate with the other lessons and 
activities of the day, are based upon such topics as nature, 
nursery tales, the playground, health lessons, geography, 
history, biography, grammar, literature, citizenship, etc. 
Common words likely to be misspelled are introduced 
repeatedly in various connections, thus doing away with 
the tiresome review. 

Dictation exercises are frequent and consist of selections 
from the most perfect specimens of English prose and 
poetry. These exercises alone would make a choice book 
of memory gems. 

An alphabetical index of topics makes it possible for 
the teacher to find instantly any lesson desired for a par- 
ticular season, festival, country, production, or author, so 
that lessons appropriate to the season or to the lessons 
of the day may always be selected. The book is in six 
divisions, from grades three to eight inclusive. Provision 
is made for both oral and written spelling. 



GINN & COMPANY Publishers 



TEXT-BOOKS ON SCIENCE 

FOR HIGHER SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES LiBt Maiimg 

price price 

Bergen's Elements of Botany ^i.io ^1.20 

Bergen's T'oundations of Botany i.eo 1.70 

Blaisdell's Life and Health go i.oo 

Blaisdell's Practical Physiology i.io 1.20 

Brown's IMiysiology for the Laboratory 75 gr 

Byrd's Laboratory Manual in Astronomy 1.25 1.35 

Davis' Elementary Meteorology 2.50 2.70 

Davis' Elementary Physical Geography 1.25 1.40 

Davis' I'hysical Geography 1.25 1.40 

Dolboar's P'irst Principles of Natural Pliilosop'.iy ;.. i.oo i.io 

Evans' Introductory Course in Quantitative Chemic;.! Analysis 50 .55 

P'rost's Scheiner's Astronomical Spectroscopy 4.75 5.00 

Gage's Principles of Physics i.-^o 1.45 

Gage's Elements of Physics. (Revised) 1.12 1.20 

Gage's Physical Experiments 35 .4- 

Gage's Physical Laboratory Manual and Note-Book .-55 .45 

(iage's Introduction to Physical Science i.oo i.io 

Gage's Introduction to Physical Science. (Revised) i.oo i.io 

Hastings and Beach's General Physics 2.75 2.95 

Lincoln's Hygienic Phy;-,iology .So .90 

Meier's Herbarium and Plant Description. With directions for col- 
lecting, pressing, and mounting specimens 60 .70 

Moore's Laboratory Directions for Beginners in Bacteriology i.oo 1.05 

Nichols, Smith, and Turton's Manual of P^xpjrimental Physics 90 1.00 

Pratt's Invertebrate Zoology 1.25 1.35 

•Sabine's Laboratory Course in Physical Measurements 1.25 1.35 

.Sellers' r.lementary Treatise on Qualitative Chemical Analysis 75 .80 

Snyder and Palmer's One Thousand Problems in Physics 50 .55 

Stone's Experimental Physics i.oo i.io 

Thorp's Inorganic Chemical Preparations 1.50 1.60 

Upton's Star Atlas 2.00 2.15 

Ward's Practical I^xercises in Elementary. Meteorology 1.12 1.25 

Wentworth and Hill's Text-Book of Physics 1.15 1.25 

Wentworth and Hill's Laboratory ICxercises in PHemcntary Physics .25 .27 

White's lilementary Chemistry i.oo i.io 

Williams' Chemical Experiments 50 .60 

Williams' Pl^lements of Chemistry i.io 1.20 

Williams' Introduction to Chemical Science 80 .90 

Williams' Laboratory Manual of Inorganic Chemistry .30 .^5 

Williams' Lal^oratory Manual of General Chemistry 25 .30 

Young's Elements of Astronomy 1.60 1.75 

^'oung's (ieneral Astronomy 2.75 3.00 

^'oung's Lessons in Astronomy :k^, 1.20 1.30 

Young's Manual of Astronomy %r^-„ 2.2!: 2.4!; 

S 

GINN 6 COMPANY Publi.^hers 

Boston New York Chicago San Francisco 

Atlanta Dallas Colun\bus London 



JUL 15 ign? 



